Litnet Akademies : 'n Joernaal vir die Geesteswetenskappe, Natuurwetenskappe, Regte en Godsdienswetenskappe - Volume 9, Issue 3, December 2012

Verstedeliking en die gepaardgaande groeiende ekologiese voetspoor wat dit agterlaat, is 'n wesenlike probleem wêreldwyd. Dit is dan ook alombekend dat lugbesoedeling as gevolg van verstedeliking en industriële groei nie net eksponensieel toegeneem het oor die afgelope twee dekades nie, maar ook beduidend verskillend is van dit wat mens in die platteland sou aantref. Een van die bydraende faktore tot lugbesoedeling is die herverspreiding van padstof in die lug as gevolg van padverkeer en ander faktore. Dit is spesifiek die mikrongrootte-fraksie wat kommerwekkende afmetings aanneem. Aangesien padstof ryk is aan organiese en anorganiese verbindings wat veral in die fyner fraksies gekonsentreer is, is dit 'n bron van verskeie karsinogeniese en toksiese verbindings met wisselende biobeskikbaarhede en hou dus vir mens en dier gesondheidsgevare in. Verskeie wetenskaplike artikels handel oor die konsentrasies van spoorelemente, toksiese metale en metalloïede in padstof (Hooker en Nathanail 2006), maar daar is weinig oor die molekulêre en strukturele karakter van die verbindings te vinde. In vitro- en diertoksikologiese studies toon juis aan dat die chemiese samestelling van ingeademde deeltjies 'n uiters belangrike rol speel in die toksikologiese, genotoksiese en karsinogeniese meganismes in die liggaam, en dat die komponent-spesifieke toksiese effekte nog nie behoorlik verstaan word nie. Oorgangsmetale wat aan die stofdeeltjies in die lug bind, kan in die liggaam (en veral die longe) lei tot die vervaardiging van reaktiewe suurstofspesies, wat 'n wesenlike kommer is onder die meer kwesbare bevolkingsgroepe, soos kinders, oumense en terminaalsiek pasiënte. Dit is dus duidelik dat die chemiese karakterisering van die fyn fraksie van padsedimente van belang is wat volksgesondheid betref. Tydens 'n vroeëre studie is padsediment in 'n stedelike omgewing in die Verenigde Koninkryk versamel en gedeeltelik gekarakteriseer (Barrett e.a., 2010). Dieselfde monsters, wat ook in verskeie deeltjiegroottes gefraksioneer is, is verder met behulp van X-straal-fluoressensie-spektrometrie (XSFS) en induktief-gekoppelde-plasma-massaspektrometrie (IGP-MS) geanaliseer om die elementele samestelling kwantitatief te bepaal. Deur gebruik te maak van rekenaarbeheerde elektrontastende X-straal-mikroanalise (RB-EXMA) is individuele deeltjies geanaliseer (200 deeltjies per deeltjiegrootte) sodat hulle molekulêre struktuur afgelei kon word van die elementele verwantskappe. Hierdie bevindings is vergelyk met mikro-Raman-spektroskopie- (mRS-) resultate. Die fyn fraksie (<38 µm) het die hoogste Pb- (238 dpm) en Cr- (171 dpm) konsentrasies getoon. Die RB-EXMA-data het aangetoon dat >50% van die Cr-ryke deeltjies verwantskappe met Pb toon. Die mRS-data toon dan ook inderdaad dat die Cr hoofsaaklik teenwoordig is in die Cr(VI)-oksidasie-toestand en meestal as loodchromaat voorkom. Beide Pb- en Cr-konsentrasies neem toe soos die deeltjiegrootte afneem (279 (<38 mm) - 13 dpm (&lt;1mm); 171 (<38 mm) - 91 dpm (<1mm) onderskeidelik). Bo en behalwe die teenwoordigheid van kommerwekkend hoë konsentrasies oksiderende spesies soos Cu, Fe en Mn is die karsinogeniese en toksiese potensiaal van die fyn fraksie, wat as gevolg van verpoeiering en herverspreiding inadembaar is, baie duidelik. In vitro-toetse van hierdie padstoffraksies toon dat die Cr en Pb geredelik gemobiliseer word in kunsmatige longvloeistof en dat tot soveel as 54% Cr en 97% Pb vrygestel word.

The risk profile of Cr and Pb in urban road deposited sediment

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Exponential urbanisation and industrial growth occur on a global scale and result in an ecological burden, of which one important part is pollution. It is well known that the extent of air pollution has escalated over the past two decades in several parts of the world, despite mitigating measures and legislation. Current research points to the fact that air pollution in urban and industrial areas is substantially different from that found in rural areas. Road dust (RD) contributes up to 35% of airborne particulate matter due to resuspension thereof, and poses a health concern due to carcinogenic and toxic components potentially present in the micron-sized fractions. Although literature does report on the concentrations of trace, toxic metals and metalloids present in RD (Hooker and Nathanail 2006), the molecular make-up of particulates generated due to the resuspension of the RD is not well documented. In vitro and animal toxicological studies have confirmed that the chemical composition of inhaled particles plays a major role in its toxic, genotoxic and carcinogenic mechanisms, but the component-specific toxic effects are still not understood. Transition metals binding to air particle matter can result in reactive oxygen species in the human body (particularly in the lungs), and this is a significant risk, especially for vulnerable population groups like elderly people, children and terminally ill patients. The characterisation of the molecular composition of the fine fraction is evidently of importance for public health. During an earlier study, road dust from an inner-city environment in the UK was collected and partially characterised (Barrett e.a. 2010). These same-size fractions were analysed for their elemental concentrations, using X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRFS) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). In addition, single-particle analysis was performed on the different fractions by means of Computer Controlled Electron Probe X-ray Micro Analysis (CC-EPXMA) and their molecular structure probed by studying elemental associations. These findings were correlated with Micro Raman Spectroscopy (MRS) results. It was found that the fine fraction (<38 µm) had the highest Pb (238 ppm) and Cr (171 ppm) concentrations. The CC-EPXMA data showed >50% association of Cr-rich particles with Pb and the MRS data showed that the Cr was mostly present as lead chromate and therefore in the Cr(VI) oxidation state. Concentrations of both Pb and Cr decreased substantially (279 (<38 mm) - 13 ppm (&lt;1mm); 171 (<38 mm) - 91 ppm (<1mm) respectively) in the larger fractions. Apart from rather alarmingly high concentrations of oxidative stressors (Cu, Fe, Mn), the carcinogenic and toxic potential of the inhalable fraction is evident. Preliminary bioaccessibility data indicated that both Cr and Pb are readily mobilised in artificial lisosomal liquid and up to 54% of Cr and 97% of Pb was released.

Die eerste karbeenkomplekse van goud is reeds in 1971 deur Bonati en Minghetti gerapporteer. Verdere ontwikkelings na die 1980's was stadig. Sedert 2007, toe die belangstelling in goudchemie reeds geweldig toegeneem het - en kort daarna amper dol geraak het - is die oorspronklike tipe asikliese diaminokarbeenkomplekse (ADK-komplekse) van goud weer te voorskyn gehaal, aangepas, beter gekarakteriseer en gebruik in teoretiese studies, luminessensie-ondersoeke, reaksies onder ongewone, hoë-energietoestande, stoïchiometriese omsettings, enkelkristalstudies en katalitiese reaksies waarin die goudatoom as reaktiewe sentrum optree. Die katalitiese ondersoeke konsentreer aanvanklik op chemo- en regioselektiewe transformasies, maar bereik uiteindelik 'n hoogtepunt met uiters suksesvolle enantioselektiewe sikliserings van geselekteerde alkynverbindings, waarin eers dikernige katalisatore en uiteindelik selfs monokernige ADK-goudkomplekse gebruik word. Sekere ADK-ligande beïnvloed die metaal elektronies en terselfdertyd stel dit die katalisator in staat om chirale inligting gedurende die aktiveringsproses optimaal aan die substraat oor te dra. In die lig van al hierdie inligting word nuwe voorstelle vir verdere ondersoek hier gemaak.

The first carbene complexes of gold were reported by Bonati and Minghetti in 1971. Thereafter, for more than three decades, further developments were slow - until 2007, when there was an explosive increase in interest in gold chemistry. The original acyclic-diaminocarbene-type (ADC) complexes have recently been rejuvenated by improved characterisation, theoretical calculations, studies in luminescence, investigations of their stability and reactivity under high energy conditions, single crystal structure determinations, and their utilisation in stoichiometric and catalytic conversions in which the central gold atom functions as a reactive centre. The initial focus of the catalytic research was on chemo- and regioselective transformations, but it culminated in tremendously successful enantioselective cyclisations of selected alkyne compounds - initially with dinuclear gold catalysts, and ultimately even with mononuclear gold complexes. Subsequently, some ADC ligands were successfully designed to electronically influence the central gold atoms and, simultaneously, enable optimal transfer of chiral information to the substrate during the activation process. With all this new information at one's disposal, new directions for future investigation are now proposed.

Oor 'n tydperk van meer as 3 000 jaar is veral in krisistye van buitengewone regsfigure of billikheidsremedies gebruik gemaak om deur respyt onderstand te verleen aan persone wat as gevolg van omstandighede buite hul beheer nie in staat is om hul verpligtinge reëlmatig na te kom nie. Hierdie regsfigure word generies na verwys as moratoria, respytmaatreëls of siviele onderstand.

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Die belang van die statutêre moratoria tydens die Eerste Wêreldoorlog is basies tweeledig van aard.

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Eerstens is die heel eerste Suid-Afrikaanse algemene moratorium op kontraktuele verpligting, naamlik vooroorlogse skulde, in wetgewing vergestalt wat sterk herinner aan gemeenregtelike beneficia soos rescripta inductionis, rescripta moratoria (oftewel brieven van respijt en atterminatie) en surcheance van betaalinge.

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Tweedens het die moratorium wat deur wetgewing verleen is aan soldate en ander lede van die Unie-verdedigingsmag op aktiewe diens, nie die Engelse voorbeeld gevolg nie, maar was dit geskoei op die reëling voorsien in die Wet voor den Krijgsdiens in de Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek van 1898 gedurende die Anglo-Boere-oorlog. Laasgenoemde weerspieël weer die bepalings van die Placcaet Raeckende alle Leger-Personen uitgereik deur die Prins van Oranje op 7 Mei 1630 en soortgelyke vroeër reëlings in die Romeins-Hollandse reg.

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Gedurende die Tweede Wêreldoorlog is die betrokke bepalings van die Openbare Welzijn en Moratorium Wetten 1914-1919 weer aangewend om onderstand te verleen aan soldate op aktiewe diens. Sodoende is aan die howe die geleentheid gegee om voort te bou op die vorige regspraak by die uitleg van hierdie bepalings. Dit het aan die einde van die Tweede Wêreldoorlog 'n redelik gesofistikeerde regsposisie tot gevolg gehad wat op plaaslike omstandighede afgestem was. Hierdie statutêre bepalings het die basis gevorm vir alle latere Suid-Afrikaanse moratoriumwetgewing van dié aard.

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Die ontleding van die ontwikkeling van hierdie statutêre reëling vorm die hooftema van hierdie bydrae. Onder andere word die baie belangrike verband tussen die opskorting van siviele regsremedies en die uitstel van kontraktuele verpligtinge beklemtoon, en Hollandse jurisprudensie wat geneig was om hierdie oorsaaklikheid te ignoreer, word gekritiseer.

An overview of the nature, development and influence of statutory moratoria in South Africa during the first half of the 20th century

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For centuries Western and other legal systems have made use of equitable devices postponing obligations and suspending legal remedies, especially for the benefit of persons unable to meet their obligations in time owing to exceptional circumstances not of their own doing. These devices are usually generically referred to as moratoria, stay laws or civil relief.

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The moratoria introduced during the First World War by the Public Welfare and Moratorium Act of 1914 may be seen as unique, primarily for two reasons.

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First, it provided for the first South African general moratorium on contractual obligations, in this instance pre-war debts. It authorised the courts to grant a moratorium in their discretion on a pre-war debt to persons who, although solvent, were not able to comply in time with their obligations as a consequence of the war conditions. The onus was on the debtor to prove that the obligation had been contracted before 4 August 1914 and that he was not able to comply with his obligations as a direct or indirect result of the circumstance consequent upon the war. This beneficium or statutory largesse for dilatory debtors had a strong similarity to the beneficia for impecunious debtors in Roman-Dutch law, such as rescripta inductionis, rescripta moratoria (or brieven van respijt en atterminatie) and surcheance van betaalinge. Although the courts relied on various principles and concepts underlying these beneficia in the interpretation of the statutory moratoria, this particular provision was not re-enacted during the Second World War or later, either during a proclaimed state of emergency or during an armed conflict in which South Africa became engaged.

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Secondly, the moratorium that was legislated in 1914 for soldiers and other members of the Union defence force on active service, although not unusual, did not follow the English example, but was based on the arrangement provided by the Wet voor den Krijgsdiens in de Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek of 1898 during the Anglo-Boer War. The latter in turn reflects the provisions of the Placcaet Raeckende alle Leger-Personen issued by the Prince of Orange on 7 May 1630 and similar earlier arrangements in Roman-Dutch and Roman law.

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Although the soldiers' moratorium was first introduced as an absolute arrangement without any restrictions, this soon proved to be impracticable. Successive amendment acts introduced and refined numerous exceptions, relating, for example, to rent, board and lodging, food and other necessities of life, interest, prescription, desertion, surety and partnership. The basic moratorium and some of these exceptions were canvassed in detail by the courts.

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During the Second World War the relevant provisions of the Public Welfare and Moratorium Acts 1914-1919 were re-enacted to provide civil relief to soldiers and other members of the Union defence force on voluntary active service. This provided an excellent opportunity to South African courts to further refine and develop the interpretation of the various statutory provisions, building on judgements handed down during the First World War. In some cases the interaction between jurisprudence and amending legislation resulted in the expeditious introduction of solutions to problematic legal positions. Here especially the position of partnerships with only some partners entitled to relief comes to mind.

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At the end of the Second World War the result of this interaction was a developed and fairly sophisticated legal position based on legislation attuned to South African conditions.

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The statutory arrangement developed during the two world wars was adopted as the basis for successive South African stay and moratory laws, in preference to the more modern and far more comprehensive and detailed examples provide for the Soldiers and Sailors Civil Relief Act of the United States, for example.

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An analysis of the development of this statutory arrangement forms the main theme of this contribution. Inter alia, the very important connection between the suspension of civil legal remedies and the postponement of contractual obligations is stressed and Dutch jurisprudence that tended to ignore this causality is criticised.

Persone of gemeenskappe kwalifiseer vir restitusie indien hul ontneem is van 'n reg in grond na 19 Junie 1913 as gevolg van 'n rasdiskriminerende wet of praktyk. Die Wet op Herstel van Grondregte 22 van 1994 verskaf nie werklik duidelikheid oor wat onder "as gevolg van 'n rasdiskriminerende wet of praktyk" verstaan word nie. Gevolglik is dit die taak van die howe om die relevante frase te interpreteer en op bepaalde feite toe te pas. Die frase is 'n belangrike deel van die regsvereistes alvorens 'n grondeis suksesvol kan wees. Aan die een kant beteken dit dat nie sommer enige ontneming vir restitusie kwalifiseer nie. Aan die ander kant is dit algemeen bekend dat die hele Suid-Afrikaanse grondbeheerstelsel voor 1991 in beginsel op 'n rassebasis gefunksioneer het. Wat presies word dus onder hierdie frase verstaan?

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Die doel van hierdie bydrae is om aan die hand van regspraak bepaalde benaderings (of toetse) te identifiseer en te bepaal of 'n spesifieke benadering 'n bepaalde resultaat sou bewerkstellig. Die uitgangspunt is dat die Restitusiewet, omdat dit uit hoofde van die Grondwet (artikel 25(7)) uitgevaardig is, ook 'n doelmatige interpretasiebenadering vereis. In hierdie proses is egter oor die jare drie verskillende benaderings (of toetse) in drie toonaangewende hofbeslissings ontwikkel. 'n Uiteensetting van die verskillende benaderings en 'n vergelyking daarvan dui aan dat die resultate inderdaad verskil, afhangende van die benadering wat gevolg word. Nadat die huidige (jongste) benadering van die Popela-uitspraak (konstitusionele hof) bespreek is, word die mees onlangse beslissing, Jacobs, waarin die optrede van staatsamptenare ter sprake was, in die lig van dié benadering ontleed. Die slotsom is dat hoewel duidelikheid ten aansien van die algemene doelmatige benadering tot interpretasie verkry is, die oorsaaklikheidskwessie moontlik nog steeds problematies kan wees.

The meaning of a dispossession as a result of a racially discriminatory act or practice for purposes of the Restitution of Land Rights Act 22 of 1994 - an overview of developments in case law

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From 19 June 1913 South Africa's land control system was racially based, resulting in the acquisition and exercise of land rights being linked to and determined by the specific racial background of the individual or community concerned. In this racially based process, thousands of legislative measures were promulgated over a period of roughly 80 years resulting in millions of people being uprooted and dispossessed of land rights. The interim Constitution provided for a restitution act (section 121), a commission (section 122) and the land claims court (LCC) (section 123). Following the inauguration of the new political dispensation, the Restitution of Land Rights Act 22 of 1994 was one of the first legislative measures to be promulgated.

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The final Constitution provided for an all-encompassing land reform programme, embodying restitution (section 25(7)), redistribution (section 25(5)) and tenure reform (section 25(6)). In order to be successful with a land claim, two sets of requirements are relevant: (a) a formal set and (b) the legal requirements. The formal set requires that no just and equitable compensation had already been paid and contains a cut-off date. The legal requirements entail that the applicant(s) must have been dispossessed of a right in land after 19 June 1913 as a result of racially discriminatory laws or practices. Unfortunately the Restitution Act in itself is not really helpful in clarifying "as a result of racially discriminatory laws or practices". Accordingly, the task of interpreting and finally applying the relevant phrase rested upon the courts. Exactly how the courts approached and interpreted the relevant phrase is the main focus of this contribution.

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Over the years three distinctive approaches (or tests) were developed to clarify what would constitute a dispossession resulting from racially discriminatory laws and practices. The first test was developed in Minister of Land Affairs v Slamdien 1999 4 BCLR 413 (LCC) following a purposive interpretation approach linked to a three-question test. The latter entailed (a) whether the particular law or measure was racially discriminatory; (b) whether the particular conduct was a racially discriminatory practice; and (c) whether the actual dispossession was a result of (a) or (b) above. In casu land belonging to so-called coloured land owners was dispossessed under the 1950 Group Areas Act to build a school for coloured children. This test entailed that the relevant law or practice would be a racially discriminatory law or practice if all of the three questions were answered in the affirmative. Though a purposive approach was followed, the end result was rather rigid. This was specifically streamlined in this fashion so as to prevent a floodgate of claims as the court argued that, formerly, the whole of South Africa essentially functioned on a racially discriminatory basis. Therefore some kind of additional restriction was required. The LCC was satisfied that the dispossession of the land here was not the result of racially discriminatory laws or practices. Instead, discrimination was linked to education and aimed at school children and was neither linked with the exercise of land rights nor aimed at creating spatial racial segregation.

Onlangse gebeure - veral die Noord-Gautengse hoë hof se tersydestelling van die Suid-Afrikaanse nasionale direkteur van openbare vervolging en die Suid-Afrikaanse Polisiediens se besluit om nie misdade teen die mensdom wat Zimbabwiese burgers in 2007 in Zimbabwe gepleeg het, te ondersoek nie - vorm die agtergrond vir hierdie artikel oor die Wet op die Implementering van die Statuut van Rome oor die Internasionale Strafhof 27 van 2002 ("die Implementeringswet") en die implikasies van sodanige implementeringswetgewing vir lidstate van die internasionale strafhof ("die hof").

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Aangesien die hof self slegs oor aanvullendheidsjurisdiksie beskik en dus net kan optree indien die veiligheidsraad of 'n lidstaat hom so versoek, óf 'n lidstaat self nie vervolging wil of kan instel nie, verplig dit lidstate van die hof om universele jurisdiksie uit te oefen en plegers van internasionale misdaad nasionaal te vervolg. In Suid-Afrikaanse verband het die uitvaardiging van die Implementeringswet statutêre inhoud aan die uitoefening van universele jurisdiksie verleen. Aan die hand van die Implementeringswet beskou hierdie artikel dus die erns waarmee die land sy verpligtinge as lidstaat van die hof benader.

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Hoewel die regverdiging van universele jurisdiksie histories met grondgebied en nasionaliteit (of die gebrek daaraan) verband hou, toon hierdie artikel voorts dat die internasionale gemeenskap se afsku van 'n misdaad eerder nou as regverdiging vir vervolging deur universele jurisdiksie dien. Universele jurisdiksie gaan dus deesdae om die beskerming van die belange en waardes van die internasionale stategemeenskap.

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Laastens doen die artikel ook 'n moontlike wysiging van die Implementeringswet, óf die instel van beleidsraamwerke, aan die hand om uitdruklik voorsiening te maak vir ondersoeke na - eerder as net verhore van - internasionale misdaad ingevolge universele jurisdiksie. Hierdie voorstel spruit uit die hofuitspraak in bogenoemde Zimbabwe-saak, wat die staatsorgaan se ondeurdagte besluit om nié 'n ondersoek na die internasionale misdaad van marteling in te stel nie, hersien het.

Jurisdictional bases for the prosecution of international crimes with reference to South Africa's obligations as a member state of the international criminal court

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The recent judgement of the North Gauteng high court in Southern African Litigation Centre v National Director of Public Prosecutions is the contextual background of the article. In this judgement the applicants were successful in an application to review and set aside a decision by the Director of Public Prosecutions and the South African Police Services not to investigate alleged crimes against humanity that occurred in Zimbabwe in 2009 by members of the security forces in that country against a number of Zimbabwean citizens. Incidental to this judgement, the press has also recently reported that the director of public prosecutions has agreed to investigate alleged crimes against humanity that occurred at the order of the exiled former president of Madagascar currently living in South Africa.

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South Africa is a member state of the Statute of Rome which created the international criminal court. The Statute of Rome has been incorporated in domestic legislation in terms of the Implementation of the Statute of Rome Act 27 of 2002. The stipulations in this act are the legal basis on which the application in the Zimbabwe case was made and in terms of which the request to the Director of Public Prosecutions to investigate the alleged slaughter in Madagascar was made earlier this year.

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The article sets out to describe the jurisdictional base of the international criminal court and shows that its jurisdiction is conservative in scope. It shows that in terms of the Statute of Rome it was agreed by member states that the primary responsibility to investigate and prosecute criminals on counts of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and the crime of aggression (once that crime has been defined by the international community) is that of member states. This is referred to as "complementarity jurisdiction" and the concept is explained.

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This jurisdictional scheme is now clearly contained in South Africa's Implementation Act. One of the cornerstone provisions of this act (following on the provisions of the Statute of Rome) is the incorporation of the international principle of universal jurisdiction. This principle has now found domestic statutory recognition in the Implementation Act. The article explains the origins and application of universal jurisdiction. It focuses on the two versions of universal jurisdiction, which, in its narrower application, requires that in order to prosecute international crimes the presence of the accused person is required on the territory of the prosecuting state. The more liberal version of universal jurisdiction is that it may be applied even in the absence of the accused person when charges are brought.

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The provisions of the Implementation Act in giving statutory recognition to the principle of universal jurisdiction inevitably leads to an investigation into South Africa's legal obligations in terms of its membership of the international criminal court. These obligations and their significance with regard to ending a cycle of impunity that has traditionally attached to the perpetrators of international crimes are highlighted.

Marriage in community of property : the effect of a divorce order on a division of assets settlement

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In this note the question as to the effect of a divorce order upon the ownership of the assets of a marriage in community of property is answered with reference to recent case law. The discussion begins with an overview of the general principles applicable in South African law to the acquisition of ownership. In the case of derivative acquisition of ownership our law requires inter alia traditio, and without it ownership cannot be acquired. However, in a recent decision the court held that in the case of a divorce settlement in a marriage in community of property, with the grant of the divorce order the former spouses automatically acquire individual ownership of assets as agreed upon in the divorce settlement. The note looks critically at the reasons for this judgment and reaches the conclusion that the decision is wrong. This view is also shared by a subsequent judgement where the court decided that the settlement agreement creates only a personal right, or personal rights, for the transfer of ownership and that the divorce order consequently does not vest ownership without traditio. This decision, after critical revision, is supported.

Die doel van hierdie artikel is om vanuit die staatsreg, in besonder die finansiële staatsreg, die hantering van die finansiële krisisse in provinsies en munisipaliteite krities te bespreek ten einde te bepaal of die oplossings vir die probleme binne die raamwerk van die finansiële staatsreg, die politieke domein of dalk 'n kombinasie van die twee lê. Finansiële staatsreg is nog 'n nuwe begrip in Suid-Afrika en het ook raakvlakke met die ekonomie en beleidsoorwegings wat die hantering van finansiële staatsregtelike kwessies beïnvloed. Die besteding van staatsbegrotings om grondwetlike verpligtinge na te kom het ekonomiese en politieke implikasies. Hoe hanteer die finansiële staatsreg dit? Die artikel gee 'n oorsig van die inhoud van die finansiële staatsreg soos dit tot nou toe ontwikkel het en beoordeel die hantering van die finansiële krisis in die provinsies en munisipaliteite, met spesifieke verwysing na Limpopo, teen daardie agtergrond. Daar word ook verwys na die hantering van die finansiële krisis in lidlande van die Europese Unie, en alhoewel die omvang daarvan verskil, word gekyk na die wyse van hantering en moontlike lesse wat daaruit geleer kan word.

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Die regsraamwerk word beskryf en die feitelike situasie word aan die hand daarvan beoordeel. Daar word hoofsaaklik gefokus op primêre bronne om inligting oor die hantering van die finansiële krisisse in onderskeidelik Suid-Afrika en die Europese Unie te kry. Ten slotte word daar gekyk na die oplossings wat tans deur die Europese Kommissie in Griekeland geïmplementeer word. Die gevolgtrekking is dat die hantering van finansiële krisisse in die provinsies en munisipaliteite in Suid-Afrika 'n gekombineerde benadering verg wat oplossings sowel binne die finansiële staatsreg as deur politieke optrede insluit.

The financial crisis in provinces and municipalities : does it require constitutional or political solutions?

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Financial problems such as underspending, overspending and financial mismanagement in provinces and municipalities in South Africa have become a frequent occurrence. Regular reports by the auditor-general and the national treasury as well as various newspaper articles confirm the seriousness of this situation. The scope of these financial problems, coupled with cases of tender fraud and corruption, justifies the view that there is a serious financial crisis in many provinces and municipalities. The financial sustainability of many municipalities is under severe pressure and inadequate service delivery limits the prospects of economic growth and sustainable development in South Africa. How are these problems addressed? What is the legal framework that governs this situation?

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Management of public finances includes legal, administrative and financial considerations. How are issues like these dealt with within financial constitutional law? This article deals with the way in which the financial crises in provinces and municipalities are handled from a constitutional law perspective, in particular financial constitutional law, with the aim of determining if solutions for these problems are to be found within financial constitutional law or the political domain or a combination of the two.

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Financial constitutional law is still a new concept in South Africa. Therefore the discussion also provides a description of this particular part of constitutional law which includes constitutional provisions, specific financial legislation as well as economic and policy considerations that impact on dealing with financial constitutional issues.

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Spending of government budgets in order to implement constitutional obligations has both economic and political implications. The article provides an overview of financial constitutional law as it has developed since 1994 until today. A critical discussion of the management of the financial crisis in provinces and municipalities is then given against the background of financial constitutional law. Limpopo is used as a case study in view of the scope of the financial crisis there and the topicality of the case.

In die onderhawige saak het die eiser ingevolge 'n huurkontrak sy motorvoertuig aan 'n konstruksiemaatskappy verhuur. Die konstruksiemaatskappy het op sy beurt 'n sekuriteitsmaatskappy aangestel om die konstruksieperseel te beveilig. Nadat die eiser se voertuig van die perseel gesteel is, stel hy 'n deliktuele skadevergoedingseis teen die sekuriteitsmaatskappy in. Die hoogste hof van appèl klassifiseer die diefstal van die eiser se motorvoertuig as suiwer ekonomiese verlies. Aangesien die veroorsaking van suiwer ekonomiese verlies nie as prima facie onregmatig beskou word nie, moes die hof bepaal of die sekuriteitsmaatskappy volgens die regsopvattings van die gemeenskap 'n regsplig opgelê kan word, en indien wel, of die nienakoming van sodanige plig onredelik was. Die beantwoording van hierdie vrae het onder andere vereis dat die hof allerlei relevante beleidsoorwegings en faktore moes ondersoek ten einde te bepaal of die verweerder se optrede as onregmatig beskou kan word. Binne hierdie konteks moes die hof ook die verdere vraag ontleed: Wat is die impak van die uitsluitingsklousule in die sekuriteitskontrak op die oplegging van 'n regsplig teenoor 'n niekontrakterende derde party?

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Daar word aangevoer dat die hof nie die nodige aandag aan die volgende faktore en beleidsoorwegings verleen het nie: (a) die beheer wat die sekuriteitsmaatskappy oor die perseel asook die gesteelde voertuig uitgeoefen het; (b) die redelike voorsienbaarheid van die ekonomiese verlies wat volgens die hoogste hof van appèl se eie vroeëre bevindinge wél relevant is by die onregmatigheidsondersoek en wat grotendeels die hof se vrees vir onbeperkte aanspreeklikheid kon besweer; (c) die praktiese stappe wat die sekuriteitsmaatskappy kon gedoen het om die intrede van die verlies te vermy; (d) die omvang van die risiko van intrede van die verlies; en (e) die skep van 'n redelike verwagting by die voertuigeienaar dat sy belange beskerm sou word - iets wat die sekuriteitsmaatskappy ook redelikerwys kon voorsien het. Daar word verder aangevoer dat die hof oordrewe klem plaas op die eiser se onvermoë om sigself behoorlik te beskerm teen die intrede van enige skade aan sy voertuie en dat die erkenning van die skadevergoedingseis nie in hierdie geval sou lei tot onbeperkte aanspreeklikheid nie.

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Laastens word aangevoer dat sekuriteitskontrak wel 'n belangrike faktor is wat in ag geneem moet word by die bepaling van 'n regsplig. Daar word egter voorgehou dat die implikasie van die uitspraak, naamlik dat 'n uitsluitingsklousule kan funksioneer as 'n beding ten laste van 'n niekontrakterende derde party wat onafhanklik van die kontraktuele verhouding tussen die perseel-okkupeerder en sekuriteitsmaatskappy staan, nie wenslik is nie. Alhoewel die bepalings van 'n kontrak 'n bepalende faktor by die onregmatigheidsvraagstuk is, volg dit nie dat sodanige kontrak ook bindend is ten opsigte van niekontrakterende derde partye nie. In die laaste paragraaf word gekyk na die benaderings wat in ander jurisdiksies oor hierdie netelige kwessie gevolg word.

Factors and policy considerations for determining a contractual party's legal duty towards a third party : a critical discussion of Viv's Tippers (Pty) Ltd v Pha Phama Staff Services (Pty) Ltd t/a Pha Phama Security 2010 4 SA 455 (SCA)

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In the present case the plaintiff concluded a lease agreement with one Lone Rock, a construction company, in terms of which it leased several of its trucks to Lone Rock. Subsequent to the conclusion of the lease agreement, and on the insistence of the plaintiff, Lone Rock entered into a security services agreement with the defendant, a security services company, according to which the defendant was obliged to provide security services at Lone Rock's construction site. The security services agreement included an exclusion clause in terms of which the defendant could not be held liable for any harm or loss arising from the provision of the security services. Following the theft of one of its trucks from the premises the plaintiff instituted a delictual claim for damages against the defendant. The court of first instance denied the plaintiff a remedy and, on appeal, the supreme court of appeal dismissed the plaintiff's claim, holding that the exclusion clause in the security services agreement operated effectively as against the non-contracting plaintiff. Furthermore, the court held that the theft of the plaintiff's truck constituted pure economic loss, which, since its causation is not considered to be prima facie wrongful, required the plaintiff to prove that the defendant had a legal duty to the plaintiff to prevent the pure economic loss. The court held that the plaintiff could not prove the existence of such legal duty and that, accordingly, it could not be said that the defendant's conduct was wrongful for the purposes of the law of delict.

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In this article the decision of the supreme court of appeal is analysed along the following grounds: Was the court correct in classifying the loss as purely economic? If the harm suffered was indeed purely economic, did the court come to the right conclusion when it decided that no legal duty to prevent such harm was owed by the defendant to the plaintiff? Was the court correct in holding that the contractual exclusion clause operated against non-contracting parties?

Suid-Afrika het 'n gemengde regstelsel. Die stereotiepe benadering is gebaseer op die teenstelling Engels-Afrikaans, wat gedurende die 20ste eeu die universiteite en gevolglik die paradigmas regeer het. Die doel van hierdie artikel is om die uitwerking van die stare decisis-leerstuk (Engelse reg) en die curia ius novit-reël (Europese siviele reg) op die Suid-Afrikaanse regsontwikkeling vas te stel. Vir hierdie doel is twee hofbeslissings ontleed ten aansien van hul keuse en toepassing van bronne, die eerste gegee gedurende die beginjare van die Kaapse hooggeregshof, en die ander gedurende die tagtigerjare van die 20ste eeu. Albei sake het betrekking op die bankier-kliënt-verhouding en meer spesifiek die toepaslikheid van die exceptio doli in hierdie konteks.

Reception of Roman law in South Africa : stare decisis and curia ius novit

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The purpose of this article is to ascertain the effect of the stare decisis doctrine of English law and the curia ius novit rule of European civil law on the development of South African law. For this purpose two decisions are analysed with regard to their choice and application of sources, the one given during the initial years of the Cape supreme court, and the other during the eighties of the 20th century.

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The Charters of Justice of 1827 and 1832 reorganised the administration of justice in the Cape colony. An independent supreme court with professional judges was created and the laws of criminal and civil procedure were reformed. Absence of the curia ius novit rule frustrated the aspired assimilation of colonial law to British jurisprudence. This rule instructs the judge to find and apply the law ex officio, but in common law the English judge limits himself to the legal arguments raised by parties. Thus reception of Roman-Dutch law depended to a large extent on the legal practitioners in the Cape. The pre-1828 advocates were all doctors of laws who had studied in the Netherlands. The Charters of Justice did not introduce the binding force of precedent, but it has been generally accepted that from the earliest days of the Cape supreme court this doctrine constituted an essential element of South African common law.

Artikel 129(1)(a) van die Nasionale Kredietwet 34 van 2005 (hierna Kredietwet) bepaal dat 'n verbruiker skriftelik van sy versuim in kennis gestel moet word alvorens 'n kredietverskaffer verdere stappe kan doen om skuld onder 'n kredietooreenkoms af te dwing. Grootskaalse onduidelikheid en verwarring het geheers oor wat presies voldoening aan hierdie bepaling daarstel. Die meerderheid skrywers was van mening dat versending van die kennisgewing deur die kredietgewer voldoende is, maar die howe het in teenstrydige beslissings getoon dat die aangeleentheid nie so eenvoudig is nie. Die hoogste hof van appèl het uiteindelik regsekerheid bewerkstellig deur in Rossouw v First Rand Bank te beslis dat versending per geregistreerde pos aan 'n verbruiker - wat sodanige metode gekies het as wyse waarop kennisgewings kragtens die Kredietwet aan hom afgelewer moet word - voldoening aan artikel 129(1)(a) daarstel. Die hof beslis verder dat die verbruiker die risiko dra dat die kennisgewing hom moontlik nie sal bereik nie. Hierdie nuutgevonde regsekerheid was egter van korte duur, aangesien die konstitusionele hof in die meerderheidsuitspraak van Sebola v Standard Bank of South Africa Ltd beslis het dat blote versending nievoldoening daarstel nie. Die uitspraak leen hom tot kritiek in vele opsigte, waarvan die sterkste is dat dit teenstrydige stellings bevat en nie duidelik uiteensit wat presies as voldoening gesien kan word nie. Sebola het dus opnuut tot onsekerheid en verwarring gelei, soos duidelik uit twee daaropvolgende uiteenlopende beslissings blyk. In hierdie artikel word die aard, omvang en doel van die artikel 129(1)(a)-kennisgewing ondersoek ten einde te bepaal wat presies voldoening daaraan behels. Die historiese ontwikkeling van kennisgewingsvereistes in verwante en ander relevante wetgewing, asook regspraak kragtens sodanige wetgewing, word oorsigtelik in oorweging geneem. Die aanloop tot die uitspraak in Sebola, die Sebola-beslissing in besonder, asook die twee teenstrydige uitsprake daarna word ondersoek ten einde tot 'n gevolgtrekking aangaande die aard van die vereistes van artikel 129(1)(a)-kennisgewing te kom.

Section 129(1)(a) of the National Credit Act 34 of 2005 : confusing confusion regarding compliance

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The National Credit Act 34 of 2005 (hereafter Credit Act) created quite a stir on the procedural front in the ambit of debt enforcement due to its maze of interactive procedural requirements to which a credit provider must adhere during the enforcement procedure. Central to the debt enforcement process is the much debated section 129(1)(a)notice, the "gateway" to the debt enforcement procedure. Section 129(1)(a) constitutes the introduction to Part C of Chapter 6 of the Credit Act that deals with "Debt enforcement by repossession or judgment" and provides as follows:

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129. Required procedures before debt enforcement

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1. If the consumer is in default under a credit agreement, the credit provider - a. may draw the default to the notice of the consumer in writing and propose that the consumer refer the credit agreement to a debt counsellor, alternative dispute resolution agent, consumer court or ombud with jurisdiction, with the intent that the parties resolve any dispute under the agreement or develop and agree on a plan to bring the payment up to date.

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A specific aspect of the section 129(1)(a)notice that gave rise to much confusion due to diverging judgments is the question whether the notice is effective and constitutes compliance with the Credit Act only once the consumer has received the notice. After the judgment of the supreme court of appeal in Rossouw v First Rand Bank it seemed that the issue had been laid to rest. The court decided that the despatching of the notice by registered mail to the consumer - the method chosen by the consumer as the manner in which notices under the Credit Act must be delivered to such a consumer - constitutes compliance with section 129(1)(a) of the act. The court also held that the consumer carries the risk of non-receipt of the notice due to the fact that the consumer is allowed to elect the method of delivery. This newly found legal certainty was short-lived as the constitutional court in the majority judgment in Sebola v Standard Bank of South Africa Ltd attached a new interpretation to the section 129(1)(a)notice requirement. The fact that the decision of the constitutional court did not place the proverbial lid on the notice requirement in terms of the Credit Act became rapidly clear when divisions of the high court thereafter gave contradictory judgments on the effect of the Sebola judgment on the notice requirement in terms of section 129(1)(a).

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This article investigates the nature, scope and purpose of the section 129(1)(a)notice in order to answer the question as to what exactly will constitute compliance with the notice requirement in terms of said section. We refer briefly to the historical development of the notice requirement in related and other relevant legislation as well as leading judgments before Sebola that considered the section 129(1)(a)notice requirement. Thereafter the judgment of the constitutional court in Sebola as well as specific contradictory statements made in the judgment are set out and analysed in order to come to a conclusion on the correctness of the Sebola judgment.

Verkrygende verjaring word meestal beskou as 'n gedeelte van die Suid-Afrikaanse reg wat redelik regseker en onproblematies is. Die klaarblyklik onkontroversiële aard van hierdie regsreël is egter onlangs in twyfel getrek deur die vierde kamer van die Europese hof vir menseregte in die Pye-saak, waar bevind is dat adverse possession - die common law-eweknie van verjaring - 'n onteiening sonder vergoeding behels, welke gevolg strydig met artikel 1 van die eerste protokol tot die Europese Verdrag vir Menseregte, 1950 is. Alhoewel hierdie bevinding op appèl omvergewerp is, beklemtoon dit die belangrikheid van die vraag of verjaring (wat ook eiendomsverlies sonder vergoeding tot gevolg het) op een lyn met artikel 25 van die Suid-Afrikaanse Grondwet is. Om dit te beantwoord, ontleed ons die prosesse oor verjaring met verwysing na die FNB-metodologie.

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Hierdie artikel fokus spesifiek op die onteieningsvraagstuk, naamlik of verjaring 'n onteiening van regte ingevolge artikel 25(2) meebring. Ten einde dié kwessie aan te spreek ontleed ons hierdie regsreël teen die agtergrond van sekere kernaspekte van die Suid-Afrikaanse onteieningsreg, naamlik die aard van die onteieningsbegrip, die relevansie van staatsverkryging, welke regsbronne onteiening magtig, asook die metodes waarvolgens onteiening kan geskied. Laastens ondersoek ons die vraag of verjaring moontlik konstruktiewe onteiening behels. Deur hierdie ondersoek word getoon dat dit hoogs onwaarskynlik is dat verjaring onteiening meebring. Verjaring vind bykans altyd tussen private individue plaas en dus kan daar geen sprake van staatsverkryging van onteiende regte wees nie. Verder verleen die verjaringswette geensins onteieningsbevoegdheid aan die staat nie en maak hulle ook nie voorsiening vir vergoeding nie. Daarby kan verjaring ook nie maklik onder enige van die bestaande onteieningsmetodes tuisgebring word nie. Laastens redeneer ons dat konstruktiewe onteiening waarskynlik nie in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg bestaan nie. Gevolglik is dit dogmaties beter om verjaring te beskou as 'n nie-arbitrêre ontneming van eiendomsreg, welke ontneming nie 'n onteiening van regte tot gevolg het nie.

Loss of ownership through acquisitive prescription : uncompensated expropriation - or not?

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Acquisitive prescription is one of the original methods of acquisition of ownership and is regulated mainly by two prescription acts, read together with the common law. The requirements of this legal institution are reasonably clear and therefore most of the common law sources, the courts and legal scholars regard it as rather unproblematic in South African law. However, the apparently uncontroversial nature of this legal institution was recently challenged (although not in the South African context) in the Pye case where the fourth chamber of the European court of human rights found that adverse possession - the common law equivalent of acquisitive prescription - amounted to an uncompensated expropriation that was contrary to article 1 of the first protocol (the property clause) to the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 1950. Although this decision was subsequently overturned on appeal by the grand chamber of the European court it highlights the question whether the processes surrounding prescription, which in effect results in a forced transfer of ownership, complies with section 25 of the Constitution of South Africa. This question is indeed topical in our law, for it was recently argued before the Western Cape high court that the loss of ownership brought about by prescription results in an uncompensated expropriation. Therefore, it is necessary to obtain clarity in this regard. To address this matter the authors analyse prescription in terms of the FNB methodology, with specific emphasis on the question whether prescription results in an uncompensated expropriation of property in conflict with section 25(2) of the Constitution.

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Scrutiny of the principles of expropriation, considered together with the difference between expropriation methods, leads to the conclusion that is unlikely that the effect of acquisitive prescription can be seen as expropriation. One of the key factors used by the courts to distinguish between expropriation and deprivation is to determine whether there was state acquisition of the expropriated property. In light of this approach it is difficult to see how prescription can amount to expropriation, as prescription cases invariably occur between private individuals. The state will seldom, if ever, acquire property in this manner. Furthermore, only the state has the power to expropriate property in South African law, which power must be explicitly granted to the state by way of authorising legislation. In addition, the empowering statute must set out the circumstances, procedures and conditions under which expropriation may take place, as well as the purpose for which property may be expropriated. It is trite law that expropriatory legislation must also provide for compensation. Should the authorising statute not contain any explicit or tacit provision for the payment of compensation, it is presumed that the legislation does not allow expropriation.

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Against this background it is significant that neither of the two prescription acts authorises the state to expropriate property. Furthermore, they do not set out the circumstances, procedures or conditions under which expropriation may take place either, nor do they mention the specific purpose for which property may be expropriated or provide for compensation. These factors underscore the unlikelihood of a conclusion that prescription results in expropriation of property.

Hierdie artikel doen verslag van 'n ondersoek na die eienskappe van die vokale van Afrikaans soos voortgebring deur 20 bejaarde Afrikaanssprekende vroulike sprekers (gemiddeld 86 jaar oud). Om dit te kon doen, was dit eerstens nodig om al die fonemiese Afrikaanse vokale te versamel, te ontleed en volledig en op 'n insiggewende wyse te beskryf. Hiervoor het ek gekonsentreer op die akoestiese eienskappe van hierdie vokale, maar ek integreer ook die toepaslike artikulatoriese eienskappe van die vokale in die ondersoek. Ek baseer die ontleding en die beskrywing op 'n model wat vir hierdie doel ontwikkel is (Wissing 2012). Ek verwys na 'n interaktiewe vokaalkaart, wat fokus op die artikulatoriese aspek van vokaalproduksie oor die algemeen: http://www.nwu.ac.za/af/content/ctext-vokaalkaart

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Wat die akoestiese ontleding en beskrywing betref, gebruik ek die eerste twee vokaalformante, genoem F1 en F2, om 'n oorsigtelike akoestiese vokaalkaart saam te stel. Sodanige kaart is tot groot hulp wanneer verskillende vokaalstelsels, soos die huidige een van die ou groep sprekers, vergelyk word met dié van, sê, jong sprekers. Afgesien van F1 en F2, gee ek ook aandag aan agt ander parameters: vokaalduur, intensiteit (totale intensiteit; intensiteit in BF1 en BF2), grondtoon, harmonisiteit-tot-geraas-verhouding HGV), F3 en die bandwydte van F1, waarvan slegs 'n paar ander (F0, F3 en Duur) naas F1 en F2 soms ook bekyk word - maar dis die uitsondering (vgl. Adank, Van Hout en Smits 2004). In die geval van al die parameters gee ek basiese metings (gemiddeldes, aantal geldige gevalle in die datastel, en standaardafwykings). Ek gebruik die gemiddeldes om ook lyngrafieke van vokale ten opsigte van al tien die parameters te verskaf. Op grond hiervan kan interpretasies en afleidings makliker gemaak word as om bloot die beskikbaarheid van metingswaardes per tabel te gee. Die resultaat van die ondersoek is in baie opsigte nuut en interessant. Dit toon veral dat F1 en F2 'n beperkter waarde het in die klassifikasie van vokale en subgroepe van vokale as wat gewoonlik aangeneem word. In sommige opsigte word die klassifikasie van vokale op grond van die horisontale en vertikale dimensies van artikulasie daarvan sterk ondersteun. Sulke parameters is met name Intensiteit in BF2 (die spektrale area bokant 1000 Hz), HGV en die bandwydte van F1. Die vokaalontledingsmetode en beskrywingsmodel wat in Wissing (2012) voorgestel word, word in hierdie ondersoek ondersteun en blyk baie goed bruikbaar te wees. Dit is ook duidelik uitgewys dat dit onnodig is in die geval van 'n homogene groep sprekers soos hierdie - almal bejaard en vroulik - om van 'n normaliseringsproses gebruik te maak.

Acoustic analysis of the vowels of a group of elderly Afrikaans-speaking women

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This article reports on research on the characteristics of the Afrikaans vowels as produced by 20 elderly Afrikaans-speaking women with an average age of 86. In order to do this, it was necessary first to collect recordings of all the phonemic Afrikaans vowels, to analyse them and then to describe them in a comprehensive and informative way. With this in mind, I focused on the acoustic properties of these vowels, although I also integrated their relevant articulatory properties. I based the analysis and description as well as the evaluation of the results mainly on a descriptive model that had been developed for this purpose (Wissing 2012). Of course, numerous other models and sub-models exist, but this one covers all the acoustic parameters dictated by the project of which this article forms a part, namely Pronunciation varieties of Afrikaans.

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A secondary, superordinate goal of this project was to compare different varieties with one another. The present research provides an acoustic description of the Afrikaans that was probably spoken approximately 80 years ago. Comparing this variety with other, modern ones in terms of how these varieties are used by present-day speakers of Afrikaans, for example, may be informative.

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The method which I used to reach the descriptive goal is mostly in line with those followed in similar research endeavours, such as that of Pols et al. (1973) and Adank et al. (2004). In the present study the speech of 20 elderly female speakers was recorded and then analysed acoustically. The readers had not been selected beforehand - they took part voluntarily. The only condition was that they had to be Afrikaans speakers and should experience no inhibitive problems with regard to hearing or sight. Naturally they also had to be able to read out aloud and fluently. The stimulus material used was in the form of a reading list comprising 12 isolated, monosyllabic words. Each word contained a phoneme vowel of Afrikaans, such as the two members of the minimal pair nies and nuus. This pair enables one to determine the extent to which unrounding of the latter is present in the speech of this group of speakers, if any.

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The vowels in each speaker's recordings were determined, segmented and annotated in the Praat phonetic analysis programme, after which the relevant acoustic information was extracted for further statistical analysis. All data gained by means of analysis was tabulated, on which basis an acoustic vowel chart was constructed. In this chart the vowels were placed according to their F1 and F2 formant values. Line graphs of all the parameters' average values for each vowel were also presented. The parameters involved are the usual first two vowel frequency formants, F1 and F2, and, to a lesser extent also F3, as well as the length of vowels (duration), intensity (total intensity; intensity in BF1 and BF2), fundamental frequency (F0), harmonicity-to-noise ratio (HNR) and the bandwidth of F1 (BdW F1).

'n Belangrike dimensie van die gebrek aan dissipline in Suid-Afrikaanse skole is die feit dat die Suid-Afrikaanse Skolewet (RSA 1996b) - en die oorbeklemtoning van leerderregte - ná 1994 onsekerheid by opvoeders teweeggebring het wat die toepassing en formulering van regmatige dissiplinêre maatreëls betref (Roos 2003:481). Dit is moontlik as gevolg hiervan dat baie opvoeders skynbaar nie daarin slaag om leerder-wangedrag aan te spreek en dissipline in die klaskamer te herstel nie. Dít lei daartoe dat dié leerders in die klas wat wel op hulle studies wil fokus, dikwels as gevolg van die ontwrigtende gedrag van sekere leerders nie toegang tot gehalte-onderwys het nie (Joubert, De Waal en Rossouw 2004:84). Die doel van hierdie ondersoek is om te bepaal hoe opvoeders se bevoegdhede ten opsigte van die toepassing van dissiplinêre maatreëls deur die Handves van Regte (spesifiek met betrekking tot leerderregte) beïnvloed word. Dit is belangrik dat opvoeders moet weet presies wat hulle dissiplinêre bevoegdhede is, veral ten opsigte van die toepassing van dissiplinêre maatreëls wanneer dit nodig is, en hoe hierdie bevoegdhede deur die leerders se fundamentele regte beïnvloed word. 'n Deeglike literatuurstudie is gedoen om die bepalings van die Grondwet van die Republiek van Suid-Afrika (RSA 1996a) en die Skolewet (RSA 1996b) ten opsigte van die toepassing van dissiplinêre maatreëls in die klaskamer te ondersoek. Op hierdie manier is die doelstelling van die studie deur die bestudering en interpretasie van regsbronne en ander literatuur aangespreek.

The change to a democratic order in South Africa since 1994 also brought about major challenges for teachers. Possibly one of the greatest challenges is how to express their disciplinary competencies with regard to classroom discipline within the framework of the Bill of Rights as set out in Chapter 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996).

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Teachers are often unsure regarding the extent to which the fundamental rights of learners who misbehave may be limited during the application of disciplinary measures in the classroom (Moswela 2008:93). Relating to this is the fact that there is apparently an inability amongst teachers to apply sufficient lawful disciplinary measures in the classroom after corporal punishment was declared illegal shortly after 1994. Many teachers feel powerless with regard to their ability to maintain discipline in the absence of corporal punishment (Mestry and Khumalo 2012:104; Marais and Meier 2010:41; Maphosa and Shumba 2010:387).

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Beckmann and Joubert (in Oosthuizen, Rossouw and De Wet 2004:50) are of the opinion that most teachers have only a vague, general understanding of human rights and responsibilities. This ignorance results in their being afraid of unknowingly violating learners' rights during the application of disciplinary measures, and subsequently being accused of misbehaviour (Moswela 2008:93; Rossouw 2003:425). This often leads to a lack of discipline in the classroom, which in turn results in the fact that those learners in the class who do want to focus on their studies do not have access to quality education because of the disruptive behaviour of fellow learners (Joubert, De Waal and Rossouw 2004:84).

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Furthermore, learners in South Africa often tend to overemphasise their rights, and insist on exercising those rights. In the process they are often dismissive of the rights of others (for example their teacher and fellow learners). Many learners seem to be unaware of the fact that exercising their rights goes hand in hand with certain responsibilities - or they deliberately choose to ignore this (Oosthuizen et al. 2004:66). Failing to acknowledge others' rights can lead to disciplinary problems in the classroom (Rossouw 2003:414), which, as mentioned before, may impede effective teaching and learning.

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An important cause of the phenomenon that few teachers in South Africa have sufficient legal knowledge to exercise their disciplinary competencies and responsibilities with confidence is possibly the fact that few undergraduate teaching courses offer a full-fledged subject with regard to educational law. In fact, educational law often appears only at the level of honours courses (Moswela 2008:98).

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This subject (the legal position of teachers) appears to have been neglected, also in the literature. As a result of this, many teachers do not know what their disciplinary competencies are with regard to the application of disciplinary measures (Moswela 2008:93; Rossouw 2003:425).

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The purpose of this study was to address this gap by conducting a comprehensive literature study of the matters under discussion. The study was done to investigate the provisions of the Constitution (RSA 1996a) and the South African Schools Act (RSA 1996b) with regard to the application of disciplinary measures in the classroom. In this way, the purpose of the study, namely to determine how teachers' competencies with regard to the application of disciplinary measures are influenced by the Bill of Rights (specifically learners' rights), was addressed by studying and interpreting legal sources and other literature.

Die onderrig- en leerproses in Suid-Afrikaanse klaskamers word dikwels negatief beïnvloed deur leerder-wangedrag. Dit blyk dat opvoeders dikwels onseker is oor watter dissiplinêre maatreëls in sulke gevalle regtens toelaatbaar is en as gevolg hiervan nie daarin slaag om dissipline in die klaskamer te handhaaf wanneer leerders hulle wangedra en die onderrig- en leergebeure ontwrig nie. Hulle het die vrees dat hulle tydens die toepassing van dissiplinêre maatreëls in hulle klaskamers onwetend op 'n onregmatige wyse inbreuk sal maak op leerders se fundamentele regte en dan vir wangedrag aangekla sal word. Die rede hiervoor is waarskynlik dat hulle nie 'n voldoende en funksionele begrip van hulle bevoegdhede (en verantwoordelikhede) ten opsigte van dissiplinêre maatreëls in die klaskamer het nie. In hierdie artikel word ondersoek wat die omvang van opvoeders se kennis van hulle bevoegdhede en verantwoordelikhede en dié van leerders is ten opsigte van die toepassing van dissiplinêre maatreëls, asook watter dissiplinêre maatreëls hierdie opvoeders as doeltreffend beskou en of hierdie maatreëls regmatig is. 'n Literatuurstudie is oor opvoeders se bevoegdhede en verantwoordelikhede en die regmatigheid van relevante dissiplinêre maatreëls gedoen en vraelyste en semigestruktureerde onderhoude is gebruik om data by vyf plattelandse hoërskole in die Suid-Kaap in te samel. Die navorsingsresultatee toon dat die deelnemers se begrip van die bepalings van belangrike relevante wette en regeringskennisgewings onvoldoende is om probleemsituasies rakende dissipline met selfvertroue te hanteer. Daar is ongetwyfeld 'n behoefte aan inligtingsessies en/of slypskole wat nie net op 'n teoretiese vlak inligting oordra nie, maar die bepalings van relevante regsbronne en die beginsels van effektiewe klaskamerbestuur op 'n praktiese en funksionele wyse op opvoeders se daaglikse klaskamersituasies van toepassing maak. Dissiplinêre maatreëls wat strook met die bepalings van die Grondwet van die Republiek van Suid-Afrika (RSA 1996a) en die Suid-Afrikaanse Skolewet (RSA 1996b) word ook in hierdie artikel voorgestel.

According to research by Mestry and Khumalo (2012:98) and Moloi (in Rossouw 2003:414), the teaching and learning process and the safety of learners in South African classrooms are often influenced negatively by disruptive behaviour and other forms of misbehaviour by fellow learners. In some cases the disruptive behaviour of learners even causes totally dysfunctional schools (Smit 2010:1-2; Khuluse 2009:10; Rossouw 2003:423). Furthermore, some teachers in South Africa are being threatened, sworn at, ignored and insulted on a daily basis (Maphosa and Shumba 2010:387; Moloi in Joubert, De Waal and Rossouw 2004:79).

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It appears that teachers are often unsure about what disciplinary measures are lawfully allowed in such cases and consequently fail to maintain discipline in their classrooms when learners misbehave and disrupt the process of teaching and learning. They are afraid of unknowingly violating learners' fundamental rights and subsequently being accused of misbehaviour. The reason for this is probably that they do not have an adequate and functional understanding of their competencies (and responsibilities) with regard to disciplinary measures in the classroom.

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Furthermore, some teachers seem to experience problems with regard to the application of effective, lawful disciplinary measures in the classroom after corporal punishment was declared illegal shortly after 1994. Some teachers struggle with maintaining discipline in the absence of corporal punishment and feel powerless because of this (Mestry and Khumalo 2012:104; Marais and Meier 2010:41; Maphosa and Shumba 2010:387).

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The fact that few undergraduate teaching courses offer a full-fledged subject with regard to educational law (Moswela 2008:98) and that the legal position of teachers is neglected in literature probably contributes to teachers' ignorance with regard to their competencies in terms of maintaining discipline in the classroom (Moswela 2008:93; Rossouw 2003:425).

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De Klerk and Rens (2003:355) clearly state that personal learning by means of discovery and group work cannot take place if there is a lack of discipline in the classroom. Discipline is essential for effective teaching and learning (Mestry en Khumalo 2012:97; Du Preez and Roux 2010:13; Khuluse 2009:19; Joubert et al. 2004:84). The question arises in what way teachers may handle learners' misbehaviour in order to maintain discipline in the classroom within the framework of the Bill of Rights (RSA 1996a).

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The purpose of this study was to determine the extent of the participating teachers' knowledge of their competencies and responsibilities and those of learners with regard to the application of disciplinary measures, as well as which disciplinary measures these teachers view as effective and whether these measures are indeed lawful.

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A thorough literature study was done on teachers' competencies and responsibilities and the lawfulness of relevant disciplinary measures. Following on this, questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data at five rural high schools in the Southern Cape. These five schools were selected by means of purposive sampling in order to ensure that schools of different sizes and backgrounds (historically black, coloured and white) were involved in the study.

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With the objectives of the study in mind, a qualitative research design within the framework of a case study was appropriate, although the data collected were also analysed quantitatively. The latter included the use of certain statistical procedures in order to determine the level of statistical significance of the findings.

Die deelnemende kultuur in die Web 2.0-konteks wat interaktiwiteit en wisselwerking tussen veelvuldige lesers moontlik maak, skep 'n eiesoortige dinamiek en nuwe storievertel- en publikasiemoontlikhede. Narratiewe genres wat in hierdie konteks ontstaan, word betekenisvol deur die deelnemende eienskappe van die omringende diskoerskonteks gevorm. Fanie Viljoen se grafiese verhaal Pynstiller/Painkiller, met die tema van selfskending onder tieners, is in twee weergawes op twee verskillende platforms en netwerkkontekste gepubliseer, naamlik as deel van 'n Facebook-groep en as selfoonverhaal op Yoza Cellphone Stories. Hierdie artikel beskryf die publikasiekontekste, interaktiwiteit en wisselwerking ten opsigte van die Pynstiller-weergawes aan die hand van Ruth Page (2010) se teorie van narratiewe wisselwerking waarin gebruiker-teks-wisselwerking (leser-teks) sowel as die diskoerskonteks van die gebruiker-gebruiker-wisselwerking (leser-leser) in ag geneem word. Dit blyk dat die interaktiwiteit en wisselwerking in die onderskeie diskoersnetwerke unieke kenmerke toon, ongeag dat dieselfde primêre narratief ter sprake is. Die gevolgtrekking is dat die skrywer van die kernnarratief 'n belangrike en selfs bepalende rol in die ontwikkelende narratief kan speel.

The author and new publication contexts : interactivity and interaction among online communities - Fanie Viljoen's Pynstiller/Painkiller as a case study

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The Web 2.0 context, where interactivity and cooperation between multiple readers are possible, creates unique dynamics and narrative forms. For the author the participatory environment offers new narrative and publication possibilities. The need arises for a better understanding of this changing environment, the online interaction and the developing creative forms. Globally there are big differences in terms of available technology, internet access and user patterns, and therefore it is also necessary to investigate and describe the narrative practices in local contexts.

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This article discusses two versions of South African author Fanie Viljoen's graphic novel Pynstiller/Painkiller, which were published on two different platforms and network contexts. Pynstiller (Painkiller) had its origins in a creative and research project with artists' books and practice-based research as its focus. In the project Transgressions and boundaries of the page Viljoen adapted his own short story with the theme of self-mutilation among teenagers to a graphic novel. Simultaneously with the remediation of the story Viljoen also established a Facebook group, placed the completed pages on it and started a conversation about the topical theme of self-mutilation. The novel later became available as a cell phone novel (in English and Afrikaans) on Yoza Cellphone Stories, with the graphics adapted to the dimensions of a standard cell phone screen. Yoza cellphone stories can be read on the Yoza mobisite, among others, which also makes provision for readers' comments. The reader responses and interactions that were observed in the different network contexts offer an opportunity to use this work as a case study to examine the dynamics between the author, text, context and reader in online communities in Web 2.0 contexts. Ruth Page's (2010) theory of narrative interaction as explained in her article "Interactivity and interaction: Text and talk in online communities" serves as the theoretical framework for the investigation.

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The article is organised in the following sections: (1) contextualisation in terms of the participatory culture in Web 2.0 contexts and Page's theory of narrative interaction; (2) the text and publication contexts of Fanie Viljoen's Pynstiller/Painkiller; (3) discussion of Page's theory with application to the interaction and interactivity in the Web 2.0 publication contexts of Pynstiller/Painkiller; (4) discussion of observed patterns and conversations in the Facebook Pynstiller group and Yoza Cellphone Stories; (5) conclusion and theory refinement.

Jack Parow se mees onlangse musiekvideo, "Tussen stasies", waarin hy saam met die Kaapse groep Die Heuwels Fantasties optree, verskil grotendeels van die meeste van die rapper se vorige musiekvideo's wat gebaseer is op liedjies wat ontleen is aan Parow se debuutalbum, Jack Parow (2010). Die video spreek van 'n soberheid van uitdrukking wat ongekend in Parow se ander treffers is, en nie met sy gevestigde platvloerse beeld versoenbaar is nie. Hierdie artikel beoog om die musiekvideo "Tussen stasies" aan die hand van onlangse teoretiserings oor musiekvideo te oordink en die liedjie ten opsigte van ander sogenaamde treintekste te kontekstualiseer. In hierdie opsig is daar bevind dat "Tussen stasies" wegbeweeg van die stereotiepe produksietegnieke van musiekvideo-genres, maar terselfdertyd aspekte van historiese voorlopers van rapmusiek, soos spirituals en die blues, oproep. Daar word nagegaan in watter mate die rap-aspek van die video verskil van genrekonvensies soos in Krims (2000) uiteengesit. Uiteindelik word daar beredeneer dat die musiekvideo deur middel van 'n kunstige versmelting van mediakomponente 'n eie artistieke seggingskrag in Afrikaans bevestig. Daar is ook bevind dat die video die rapper se selferkende gesplete artistieke identiteit bevestig.

"Tussen stasies" : an application of the train trope in Afrikaans music video

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Jack Parow's most recent music video, "Tussen stasies", in which he performs with the Cape group, Die Heuwels Fantasties, differs markedly from the rapper's previous music videos as based on songs derived from his debut album, Jack Parow (2010). The video reflects soberness of expression that is absent in Parow's other hits, and which is not reconcilable with his well-known banal image. The rap aspect of the video differs from genre conventions as formulated in Krims (2000), and is therefore not easily classifiable in terms of existing rap genres.

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This article aims to reflect on "Tussen stasies" in the context of recent theorisation on music video and to contextualise the song in terms of other so-called train texts. It is found that since its inception in the early 1980s, music video production has often followed the conventions of classic film genres. Kaplan's (1987) influential study, however, proposes that early music video production has often been conceptualised according to a postmodern "anti-aesthetic" which she traces to early avant-garde art. She finds that such productions broke away from the traditional narrative strategies of popular culture, and from expected relationships of cause and effect, of time and space, and of ideas of continuity, as well as from traditional conceptions of character.

Daar is 'n gebrek aan stemme, stories en skrywers in Suid-Afrika wat verteenwoordigend is van verskillende tale, kulture en gemeenskappe. Gemeenskapseie woordkuns is woordkuns, hetsy fiktief of nie, wat uniek is aan spesifieke gemeenskappe. Sodanige woordkuns is 'n uitbeelding van die unieke ruimte en identiteit van diverse taal- en ander gemeenskappe in die land. Die verskeidenheid taal- en kulturele gemeenskappe in die land het naamlik verskillende literêre behoeftes, uniek aan elke gemeenskap. Een van die kernoorsake van die genoemde gebrek is die spanning tussen die mondelinge en skriftelike tradisie wat daar steeds in baie gemeenskappe heers, en bykomend ook 'n sogenaamde sekondêre orale tradisie. Die leesproblematiek wat onder die hedendaagse jeug gevind word, vorm deel van die kompleksiteit van die saak. Indien tekste geskryf word wat 'n verskeidenheid ruimtes en identiteite reflekteer, waarmee meer Suid-Afrikaners vanoor die hele geletterdheidspektrum kan identifiseer, sal dit waarskynlik help om dié problematiek aan te spreek. Gemeenskapseie woordkunsprojekte kan 'n nuwe belangstelling in boeke, lees en skryf stimuleer, maar kan ook dien as refleksie van 'n verskeidenheid identiteite en ruimtes in Suid-Afrika. Hierdie oorsigartikel gaan van die standpunt uit dat dié genoemde spanning tussen geletterdheidsfere eerder ontgin behoort te word as om dit te probeer vermy of uit te wis. Dit is die doel van die artikel om 'n model uiteen te sit, bestaande uit basisbeginsels wat by die bevordering van gemeenskapseie woordkuns in gedagte gehou behoort te word. Dié model behels 'n aantal veranderlikes en is in teorie gefundeer op drie teoretiese velde, naamlik: (1) identiteit en ruimte, (2) die woordkuns met spesifieke verwysing na oraliteit, en (3) gemeenskapsontwikkeling. Die gevolgtrekking waartoe gekom word, is dat elke projek en inisiatief uniek is en dat beginsels by die situasie aangepas behoort te word. Hoewel baie reeds op die gebied van Afrikaanse en ander woordkunsprojekte gedoen word, is nuwe inisiatiewe nodig wat die woordkuns-potensiaal van veral opkomende gemeenskappe in Suid-Afrika ontgin. Daar word verder bevind dat beide oraliteit (primêr en sekondêr) en identiteit 'n sentrale rol in gemeenskappe se woordkuns speel. Identiteit en oraliteit speel dus ook 'n onontbeerlike rol in die aanpak van inisiatiewe ter bevordering van gemeenskapseie woordkuns.

The river of words : a model for the promotion of community-specific word art

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Community-specific word art is word art (oral or written) unique to specific communities; a portrayal of the unique space and identity of diverse language and other communities.

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People should be able to identify with the worlds created in stories. However, there is a dearth of voices, stories and writers in South Africa which are representative of a variety of languages, cultures and communities. The various language and cultural communities in the country have different literary needs, unique to each community.

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The lack of voices, stories and writers in South Africa that are representative has different causes and consequences. One of the root causes is the tension between the oral and written tradition which still affects many communities, and additionally, a new so-called secondary orality.

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The issue is further complicated by the lack of a reading culture, especially among the youth. If texts were written that reflected a variety of spaces and identities, and with which more South Africans from across the literacy spectrum could identify, this problem could probably be addressed with greater effect. Community-specific word art projects could stimulate a renewed interest in books, reading and writing. It could also serve as a reflection of a variety of identities and spaces in South Africa.

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The point of view in this overview article is that the tension between literacy spheres should be utilised in a positive way rather than avoided or erased. South Africa, as part of Africa with its strong oral tradition, has much to offer to a new hybrid form of word art. It would lead to a serious loss of cultural heritage (and property) if these changes, and the accompanying tension, were ignored. The potential of word art and artists in South Africa is possibly precisely in their adaptability to technological changes.

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Although much is already being done in the area of Afrikaans and other word art projects, new initiatives are needed to develop the word art potential of especially developing communities in South Africa. At present initiatives are focused mainly on three areas of development: formal training (like degree programmes); a general public focus (e.g. writing competitions and short-term courses); and a specific community focus (like storytelling and creative writing projects in communities). An attempt to make word art more accessible may be one reason why a community focus is on the increase with many institutions. This causes a need for research on the promotion of community-specific word art, as well as on models according to which such projects may be approached.

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This article's goal is to put forward such a model, consisting of basic principles which may be taken into account with the promotion of community-specific word art.

Navorsing oor die narratiewe van die persoonlike en professionele geskiedenisse van individuele akademici is besig om veld te wen namate navorsers toenemend gebruik maak van outo-etnografie, 'n onlangse toevoeging tot die kompendium van kwalitatiewe navorsingsmetodes om aspekte van die akademiese lewe in 'n veranderende hoëronderwyskultuur te ondersoek. In hierdie artikel word verslag gedoen oor die ontwikkeling van 'n akademiese habitus deur die loop van 'n lang akademiese loopbaan deur gebruik te maak van analitiese outo-etnografie as metode. Die oogmerk was om die self van die skrywer te koppel aan die spesifieke sosiale, historiese en kulturele kontekste van die universiteit deur gebruik te maak van 'n Bourdieuaanse verklaringsraamwerk met die sleutelbegrip habitus en die geassosieerde begrippe veld, spel en kapitaal. Analitiese outo-etnografie bied 'n kreatiewe instrument om die self in die teks sigbaar en aktief te maak, en 'n analitiese instrument om sosiale prosesse aan die hand van 'n spesifieke teoretiese agenda te abstraheer en te verduidelik. Die verhaal is gekonstrueer volgens vier oorvleuelende skryffases: die aanvanklike of inleidende fase; die daaropvolgende fase; data-ontleding en -interpretasie; en verslagskrywing. Daar word aandag gegee aan die rol van geheue en geheuesteunmiddels om 'n akkurate verhaal te produseer, asook aan maatreëls wat getref is om met informante buite die self in wisselwerking te tree ten einde die geloofwaardigheid van die teks te versterk. Die bevindings word aangebied as 'n chronologiese narratief wat illustreer hoe akademiese habitus in verskillende sosiale kontekste gekonstrueer en herkonstrueer is namate die skrywer van posisie na posisie beweeg het binne die universiteit as veld. Van deurslaggewende belang vir die vorming van habitus was die akkumulasie van vorme van kulturele kapitaal en lidmaatskap van akademiese gemeenskappe waarin weerstand gebied kon word teen konvensionele habitus of waar habitus selfs teen sigself verdeeld geraak het in nuwe spelsituasies, soos die skrywer se termyn in universiteitsadministrasie. Akademiese habitus het ook stabiliteit gebied ten tye van persoonlike krisis en is aangepas om te voldoen aan die nuwe eise van die spel in 'n veranderende hoëronderwyskultuur gekenmerk deur herstel van sosiale onreg, performatiwiteit en bestuurdersheerskappy. Daar word tot die slotsom gekom dat analitiese outo-etnografie 'n bruikbare roete tot selfbegrip en sosiale begrip van die akademiese lewe bied.

Constructing the scholarly habitus : an analytic autoethnography of twenty-five years in academe

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Social, cultural and economic trends in higher education worldwide are increasingly putting pressure on the professoriate and the value of its historical role in academe. Extant themes in the higher education research literature focus primarily on grand narratives documenting megatrends in the transformation of universities. Local, small-scale and in-depth studies on the experiences of individual academics are less common. To address this gap, narratives of the personal and professional histories of individual academics are gaining ground as researchers turn to autoethnography, a recent addition to the compendium of qualitative research methods, to explore aspects of academic life in a changing higher education culture.

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This article reports on the development of scholarly habitus over a lengthy academic career at a South African university, using analytic autoethnography as method. The aim was to link the author's self to the specific social, historical and cultural contexts of the university, using a Bourdieuan explanatory framework with the key concept of habitus and associated concepts of field, game, capital and position. Through the Bourdieuan lens, habitus is understood as a set of lasting, acquired dispositions developed through membership of a social group, which function as principles that generate and organise practices. Habitus does not function only, or even primarily, at the level of explicit consciousness. Over time, internal structures become embodied within the individual and work in a deeper, practical and often pre-reflexive way. Scholarly habitus gives the academic his/her sense of place and that of others in the context of the lived environment, the university. Habitus thus predisposes academics to choose behaviour which appears to them to be most appropriate to the achievement of a desired outcome with regard to their prior experiences, available resources and the prevailing power relations.

Die doel van hierdie studie was om vas te stel wat ons studente in die kursus terapeutiese sielkunde aan Unisa beleef tydens hul vrywillige werk wat deel van hierdie kursus vorm. Kwalitatiewe navorsing is gedoen deur 'n groep studente se opstelle te ontleed. Hierdie data is gebruik om temas te identifiseer binne die paradigma dat daar meervoudige werklikhede bestaan. Studente het oorwegend gerapporteer dat hulle positiewe gevolge van hul vrywillige werk beleef het, wat ooreenstem met bestaande navorsing. 'n Paar teorieë, byvoorbeeld die eksistensiële teorie en die sosiale-identiteitsteorie, wat hierdie positiewe uitwerking op vrywilligers verklaar, word kortliks bespreek. Verskeie temas is uit die data geïdentifiseer, wat onder die bevindings bespreek word. Die belangrikste sielkundige uitwerking op die studente was dat hulle persoonlike verandering en ontwikkeling beleef het as gevolg van die vrywillige werk en dat hulle waardevolle lesse geleer het oor hulleself, oor die lewe en oor hulle kliënte. Hulle het ook besef dat terwyl hulle ander gehelp het, hulle self ook op sielkundige gebied gehelp is. Ander positiewe gevolge is 'n gevoel dat hulle iets bereik het en dat hulle die teorie van die kursus in die praktyk kon omsit. Studente het finansiële opofferings gemaak en hulle vrye tyd opgeoffer om hierdie werk te kon doen. Die niemateriële beloning wat hulle ontvang het, het dit egter die moeite werd gemaak: hulle het gevoel hulle is van waarde, omdat hulle daartoe bygedra het om ander mense te help. As gevolg hiervan het die meeste navorsingsdeelnemers gerapporteer dat hulle lewens betekenis gekry het. Sommige het ook 'n identiteit van 'n helpende persoon ontwikkel en het sosiaal ingeskakel gevoel. Hierdie navorsing het bevestig dat studente buiten teoretiese kennis, ook praktiese ondervinding moet kry. Hierdie ondervinding het hulle positief beïnvloed en hulle het daardeur ook 'n bydrae tot hul gemeenskappe gelewer.

Days in the lives of volunteer workers : experiences of student volunteers

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The aim of this study was to find out how students are influenced by the volunteer work they do as part of a course in therapeutic psychology at the University of South Africa (Unisa). It was accepted that students' volunteer work would contribute to their theoretical knowledge (according to the widely accepted educational principle of learning by doing - see Niu 1994:2) and that they would serve their communities by doing this work. Furthermore, it became clear from the literature and from contact with the students that volunteers do not only influence other people and their communities, but that the volunteering has an influence on them. The lecturers of this course had not yet done any research on the effects of volunteering on the students and it became necessary to find out what our students experience when doing volunteer work and how it affects them. The research question, therefore, was: What are the effects of volunteering on our students who do voluntary work as part of the course in therapeutic psychology at Unisa?

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The rationale for this study developed from the need to know more about what our students experience when doing voluntary work, and from the paucity of especially South African research on volunteering, especially the psychological effects of voluntary work on volunteers, and more specifically student volunteers.

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For the purpose of this study, volunteerism is defined as "the giving of students' time, energy and money to the advantage of other people and their communities without being remunerated". The main aspect of this definition is the non-remuneration aspect.

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Qualitative research was done by analysing students' essays on their volunteer work. On the course web page students were asked to submit essays, voluntarily, of one to two pages on the topic: "A day in the life of a volunteer worker". They were asked to write about their volunteer work as if it happened in one day, even though it happened over a longer period. They were further asked to pay special attention to what they experienced, especially emotionally. Although they reported on their voluntary work in compulsory assignments, the aim with this request was to gather more comprehensive ("rich") data on their experiences and to analyse it systematically.

Die toepassing van sisteemteorie in die bestudering van die Afrikaanse literêre sisteem/veld is 'n gevestigde benadering binne die literatuurstudie, maar die verwante netwerksentriese benadering deur middel van Sosiale-netwerk-analise (SNA) is nog nie toegepas binne die Afrikaanse literatuurstudie nie. Beginsels van die sisteemteorie is duidelik herkenbaar in netwerkanalise, veral die vooropstelling van verhoudings en interaksies tussen rolspelers, en die belangrikheid van kompleksiteit. Netwerke is sisteme, waar onderlinge interaksies (skakels) tussen elemente (nodusse) lei tot 'n groter eindproduk as bloot die somtotaal van elemente self. SNA fokus op rolle en posisies, hoe 'n netwerk gestruktureer is, hoe invloed en mag versprei en hoe hulpbronne benut word. In hierdie artikel word 'n verkenning van aspekte van die Afrikaanse literêre sisteem vanuit SNA gedoen, en gevorderde rekenaarprogrammatuur word gebruik om verhoudings tussen gekanoniseerde skrywers en kritici uit te lig en aan te toon hoe die interafhanklikheid van skrywers en kritici hul posisies binne die literêre sisteem beïnvloed. Sonder SNA is dit nie moontlik om alle rolspelers binne 'n netwerk of sisteem in ag te neem nie: die 288 entiteite wat by hierdie eksperimentele studie betrek word, is reeds 'n moeilike aantal om voor te stel, maar met behulp van SNA kan duisende rolspelers betrek word: elke uitgewer, elke resensie, elke akademiese joernaal, en elke verhandeling of proefskrif (selfs elke kursusmodule waar hierdie skrywers se werke aangebied word). Die implikasie is dat die hele Afrikaanse literêre netwerk in 'n enkele oogopslag gesien kan word, die sleutelfigure uitgewys kan word, en individuele skrywers en kritici se rolle in die konteks van die algehele netwerk ontleed kan word. Alhoewel die artikel 'n eksperiment is, word aangetoon hoe SNA binne die Afrikaanse literatuurstudie benut kan word, en voorstelle vir verdere navorsing word gemaak.

The Afrikaans literary system : an experimental approach through the use of Social Network Analysis (SNA)

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The application of systems theory in the study of the literary system/field is an established approach in literary studies. Van Gorp (1997:1) writes that "systemic" terms can already be found in the work of Tynjanov, Lotman, Guillen, and Estival, but it was only in the 1970s that Luhmann, Schmidt and Even-Zohar institutionalised the study of literary systems, together with Bourdieu's theory of the literary field. Since then, De Geest, Van Rees, Ibsch, Fokkema and others have thoroughly proved the relevance of this approach to literary studies.

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The use of systems theory in the study of specifically the Afrikaans literary system/field is also well known (see, for example, De Wet 1994, John 1994, Greyling 2005 and Venter 2006), especially as undertaken from the Centre for South African Literature Research (SENSAL) at the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) during the 1980s, and the University of the Free State (UFS) (e.g. Senekal 1987, Venter 2002 and Van Coller and Odendaal 2008).

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The related network-centric approach by means of Social Network Analysis (SNA) has, however, not yet been applied to the study of the Afrikaans literary system. SNA focuses on roles and positions, how a network is structured, how influence and power spread and how resources are utilised. Using SNA, an analyst can quickly obtain a glimpse of links and highlight key figures, which mean that new insights can be discovered by the graphical representation of networks, as illustrated in this article. Principles of systems theory are clearly recognisable in network analysis, especially the foregrounding of relationships and interactions between stakeholders, and the importance of complexity.