African Journal for Physical Health Education, Recreation and Dance - Volume 18, Issue 2, June 2012

Thousands of years before the advent of modern medicine, indigenous forms of disease prevention, treatment and control existed. Whilst the efficacy of traditional health practice is debatable, it has often been criticized as backward, primitive and in extreme cases, barbaric. However, little do critics realize that the common denominator of traditional and western medicine is the extracts from plants and herbs on which both forms of health care rely. Therefore, proponents of indigenous health practices argue for the need to preserve and propagate these practices so that they are not lost and forgotten, as they have a pertinent role to play in modern health care delivery.

Indigenous knowledge (IK) is knowledge that is kept in the minds of people and is expressed in their daily lives. Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) are part of the cultural heritage that has been accumulated over the years and passed from one generation to the next. It is also expressed in their healing practices. During the apartheid government in South Africa little attention was paid to indigenous African medicine (IAM) but African people continued to utilize the services of indigenous African doctors (IADs) to meet their health needs. The World health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80% of African people continue to use indigenous African medicine (IAM) as their primary form of health care. Patients use IAM for health maintenance, treatment or prevention of minor ailments as well as serious and chronic diseases. The aim of the study was to advocate for a collaborated health care delivery system that includes both IADs and biomedical doctors in the provision of health care. The Afrocentric qualitative, explorative, descriptive and contextual approach was used and a non-probability, purposive sampling method was used to obtain a sample size of fifteen (15) IADs. Semi structured interviews were used to collect data until saturation was reached. Data were analysed qualitatively by means of the open coding method. Findings revealed one major theme namely indigenous African medicine and the categories included the origin and nature of IAM, belief system in IAM, the influence of apartheid on IAM, health system that people rely on and the health system used in the prevention of diseases. Recommendations were suggested in order to support the collaboration of indigenous African and biomedical practices in the provision of health services.

This study investigates the perceptions of barriers and benefits of participating in physical activity and the levels of physical activity of children attending farm schools in Alma-Vaalwater area. A total of 344 primary and secondary school children (185 boys and 159 girls) aged 15 to 16 years participated in the study. A standardized questionnaire designed by Desmond et al. (1990) was used to gather information on perceptions of barriers and benefits of participation in physical activity. In addition Previous Day Physical Activity Recall (PDPAR) questionnaire was used to assess the levels of physical activity. The results show high mean values in 'lack of time', 'to do work/school work' and 'lack of skills' as the three most dominant barriers for participating in physical activity. Regarding the benefits, high mean values were found regarding 'to stay in good health', 'to feel well' and 'to have energy' were found to be the three dominant factors. Significant gender differences regarding the levels of physical activity with girls participating more in light physical activities than boys, were found. This study recommends the need for the introduction of awareness programmes on the importance of physical activity for the improvement of general well-being. More studies with a larger sample size are required to verify the present findings.

Excessive body fat is one of the main contributing factors in many health related health debilitating diseases, such as diabetes, obesity, hypertension and coronary arterioscleroses. The objective of this study was to determine whether a ten month physical activity intervention (PAI) programme could alter the body composition of 9-13 year old boys. A total of 322 (173=experimental group (EG) and 149=control group (CG)) from two primary schools in Gauteng province of South Africa were studied. Body composition measures were assessed by body mass index and percentage body fat using the protocol of International Society for Kinanthropometry (ISAK, 2001). Body mass index (BMI) which was calculated as body mass/stature² (kg/m²) was used to predict obesity. Percentage body fat was determined according to the formula developed by Slaughter, Lohman, Boileau, Horswill et al. (1988). Descriptive statistics, pre-test and post-test comparisons were done by dependent t-test using Statistica software. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05 and practical significant levels were set at ES ≥ 0.8. Slight decrease in percentage body fat was found among boys in the EG as compared to those the CG after the ten month of PAI. The CG showed a practical significant increase of 4.21 (pre-test =16.28; post-test =20.49) (ES ≥ 0.2) in percentage body fat. It was evident from these findings that the participation in the PAI had beneficial health outcomes. Therefore, strategies for the inclusion of physical activity programmes in schools and after-school community physical activity programmes are recommended.

It is not known if nutritional and/or other interventions could improve linear growth in adolescents. The purpose of this study was to assess the role of physical activity in promoting linear growth velocity of black adolescents in a low-income shanty town in South Africa. Two schools in a disadvantaged shanty town participated in the study as intervention (n=250) and reference (n=66) groups. Due to practical considerations a quasi-experimental study design was used. Demographic, dietary intake, habitual physical activity and Tanner stage data were collected and anthropometric measurements were carried out over three years. Height for age z-scores (HAZ) were calculated and regression lines were fitted through HAZ values plotted against time. Slopes of HAZ regression lines for each child were used to represent the child's linear growth velocity over the study period. A physical activity intervention was carried out over two years. The main outcome measure, mean growth velocity of children from the intervention versus the reference school was compared using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), with HAZ at baseline, and habitual physical activity, Tanner stage, and dietary energy, protein, zinc and iron intakes as covariates, and growth velocity (slope of the regression line) as dependent variable. The mean slopes of HAZ regression lines of the intervention (+0.002) and reference groups (-0.007) were significantly different (p=0.009). ANCOVA showed a significantly higher slope of the HAZ regression line in the intervention group than in the reference group [F(1,292)=3.87, p=0.05]. The results indicate a possible role for physical activity in promoting the linear growth of adolescents in low-income areas.

Eating disorders among athletes is an alarming issue, much deserving of the interest it has enthused among researchers. Therefore this study was conducted to contribute to the understanding and awareness of eating disorders among university student-athletes. A purposive sample of university student-athletes at two universities in the Gauteng province of South Africa was drawn. The Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), the SCOFF questionnaire together with a biographical questionnaire was distributed among the university student-athletes. The EAT-26 proved to be reliable in this study. Low scores were evident on the EAT-26, indicative of a low prevalence of eating problems among the student-athletes. The majority of the student-athletes scored high on the SCOFF questionnaire suggesting they have issues with food or body image, or eating disorders. Notable from this study was that the majority of the student-athletes felt that they did not receive any pressure from their coaches to lose weight. Healthy relationships between student-athletes and coaches, family, friends and teammates may lessen the risk of eating disorders among the student-athletes.

As students enter university, many of them are introduced to a new social environment where they experience unfamiliar social situations. As they enter new social situations, they look to their new social groups to help them determine what attitudes and behaviours are expected or appropriate, thereby leading them to experiment with substances. Alcohol has been identified as one of the substances that most students use and abuse. When drinking behaviours among athletes become problematic and risky, there is the potential that this can influence competitive performance, academic success and social development. Research in alcohol use among student-athletes is sparse, especially in South Africa. The purpose of this study was, therefore, to examine drinking patterns among student-athletes and the related consequences thereof. A convenience sampling technique was used. Questionnaires were administered to 400 athletes at three university campuses in Gauteng Province of South Africa. Exploratory data analysis was used to describe the quantity, frequency and consequences of alcohol consumption and Chi-square analysis was conducted to determine the relationship between gender and various consequences of drinking. The study found that male student-athletes consumed high quantities of beer and spirits, whereas female student-athletes consumed moderate quantities of beer and wine. Although many of the athletes consumed alcohol occasionally, the volume of alcohol consumed by the athletes, especially males, was alarmingly high. The number of negative consequences experienced by most male and female athletes as a result of alcohol consumption was low. Implications of the findings for the students' health, academic, social development as well as athletic performance are discussed.

The evaluation of the quality of rotator cuff muscles has become an important part of the preoperative ultrasound examination. Ultrasound is accurate in the evaluation of rotator cuff integrity, but has been found to be insufficient compared to magnetic resonant imaging (MRI) in the evaluation of rotator cuff muscle quality. Complete tears of the rotator cuff lead to muscle atrophy and fatty infiltration, these changes are known to be important negative prognostic factors with regard to the anatomical and functional results after tendon repair. Several classifications and grading systems have been described for computed tomography (CT) and MRI. A number of studies have been directed at the ultrasound assessment of muscle atrophy and fatty infiltration of the rotator cuff, however, no quantitative method or grading systems have been established. At present MRI is the preferred choice for evaluation of rotator cuff fatty infiltration and muscle atrophy in clinical practice. Ultrasound is widely available, cost effective and safe; the aim of this literature review is to investigate if there is a role for ultrasound in the examination of rotator cuff muscle quality.

Ageing decreases physical functioning while dependency increases. Arising from these physical limitations is an increasing urge for the use of complementary and alternative medicine such as Pilates. However, whether Pilates should be used as a substitute for conventional modes of exercises, especially in the elderly is debatable. The present study was thus conducted to determine the effects of mat Pilates on muscular strength and endurance in elderly women (aged > 60 years). Fifty sedentary, apparently healthy females aged 60 and older were randomly assigned into a control (CG, n = 25) or an intervention (IG, n = 25) group. The IG took part in an eight-week progressive mat Pilates exercise programme, three times weekly while the CG did not participate in any structured exercises throughout the eight-week period. All subjects underwent pre- and post-test in which muscular strength and muscular endurance were assessed. Results obtained from the present study indicate that eight-weeks of mat Pilates produced significant (p ≤ 0.05) improvements in upper-body muscular strength (19.12 ± 5.13 repetitions (reps) - 27.84 ± 5.68 reps; p = 0.000), lower-body muscular strength (13.24 ± 3.23 reps - 7.52 ± 3.81 reps; p = 0.000) and muscular endurance (24.48 ± 11.62 reps to 44.16 ± 18.97 reps; p = 0.000). It is therefore, concluded that an eight-week mat Pilates exercise programme is sufficient enough to produce significant improvements in muscular strength and muscular endurance in elderly women.

Basketball is one of top 10 most popular sports frequently contested at University Sports of South Africa (USSA) tournaments. Basketball played at university level is an aggressive contact sport which lends itself to a high prevalence of musculoskeletal pain and injuries. This study documented the prevalence and causes of musculoskeletal injury sustained by the USSA basketball players. A descriptive survey was conducted on 51 male and female USSA basketball players aged 18-32 years who participated in the study by voluntary informed consent. Data were collected using a validated musculoskeletal pain questionnaire. Data were descriptively and statistically analyzed using Chi-square tests (p&lt; 0.05). The results indicated 78.43% prevalence of basketball-related musculoskeletal injury among the USSA players (p<0.01). The ankle (27.92%) and knee (18.91%) were the most prevalent anatomical sites susceptible to basketball-related musculoskeletal injury (p&lt; 0.01). Female basketball players (59.45%) sustained a higher percentage of the basketball-related musculoskeletal injury than their male counterparts (40.55%). The mechanisms producing basketball-related musculoskeletal injury reported by the players were rapid, rotational changing of direction when playing (48.57%), collision with players (37.14%) and being struck with a basketball (14.28%) (p<0.05). Overall, the findings indicated a high prevalence of musculoskeletal injury among the USSA basketball players.

The aim of the study was to establish a viable method of measuring the maximal trunk flexion and extension isometric strength in healthy South African adult males. Ten active, but untrained, males (four whites, six blacks; 28.6 ± 5.8 y) participated in the study. A Cybex 6000, dynamometer Trunk extension / flexion unit was used to measure maximal voluntary isometric strength of the lumbar flexor and extensor muscles at 0, 23, 46, 69 and 92 degrees of trunk flexion. ANOVA with post-hoc testing was applied to the flexion and extension data. Alpha was set at p < 0.05. Significant interaction effects were found at 23 (p < 0.05) and 92 (p < 0.001) degrees of trunk flexion with the peak isometric torque significantly higher for extension than flexion. Significant differences (p < 0.0001) were found between the mean peak isometric flexion torques at 0, 23, 46, 69 degrees compared to 92 degrees. There were significant differences (p < 0.0001) between the extension/flexion ratios at 0, 23, 46 and 69 degrees compared to 92 degrees. Any angle between 0 - 69 degrees of flexion may be used to assess peak isometric flexion torques, while any trunk flexion angle between 0 - 92 degrees may be used to measure isometric extension peak torques. The present methodology can be used as a reference base for future research efforts with implications for rehabilitation, performance and industry.

The study was conducted on 169 elite, male African youth soccer players (aged 14 to 18 years) from eleven African countries. Data were collected retrospectively and included prevalence of injuries over a two-season period. A self-administered questionnaire was used for data collection. Descriptive statistics, Chi-Square analysis and dependent t-tests were used for statistical analysis. Of the 169 players, a total of 132 players sustained 544 injuries with a prevalence rate of 78%. More injuries were recorded during training (55%) than competition (45%). The ankle (21% in training, 26% in competition) was the most affected site and the distribution of injuries according to body part was unrelated to playing position. This study reported a significantly higher incidence of injuries in midfielders (p<0.05). Minor injuries accounted for 50% and 52% of injuries in training and competition, respectively. The major mechanisms of injury in both training and competition were running, being tackled, tackling and shooting. Since the ankle joint was the most frequently injured body part, future studies designed to evaluate preventive strategies for ankle injuries are recommended.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of musculoskeletal injuries and health-related problems among computer-user employees in the banking institutions in Nairobi. It was hypothesized that there would be no significant differences in terms of gender and position of work in relation to the above. Subjects for the study included tellers, secretaries, clerks, and officers in banking institutions in Nairobi. A study of 1,500 employees from five banks (National bank, Cooperative bank, Equity bank, Kenya Commercial bank and Family Finance) were targeted. A total of 17 branches from the banks were randomly selected and 450 employees were selected randomly for the study. Validated questionnaires were administered to the bank employees to collect information related to the employees' experiences as regards musculoskeletal injuries and health-related problems. A total of 321 questionnaires were completed and returned. Qualitative methods of data analysis were utilized to analyze the data. Chi-square at p ≤ 0.05 was run to test the research hypothesis. The findings of the study showed that most of the bank employees (63.86%) suffered from various musculoskeletal injuries. There was no significant gender difference. However significant differences existed in terms of work positions with a calculated X² of 672 (df=8, p&lt; 0.05), where the tellers (78.70%) were the most affected by musculoskeletal injuries. It was concluded that computer-user bank employees in Nairobi Kenya suffer from work-related musculoskeletal injuries and health-related conditions. It was therefore recommended that the Kenya Bankers Association in partnership with the bank management initiate exercise ergonomics programmes for their employees so as to make the banking environment healthy to work in. In addition, more research to establish; specific causes of specific musculoskeletal injuries, specific effects of exercises on specific musculoskeletal injuries are recommended.

The study assessed the prevalence of unwanted early sexual experiences (UESE) of university students in East London, South Africa. Of the participants, 65 (31%), (male, 42.5%; female 25.2%) indicated that they had been exposed to some form of non-contact (56.9%) or contact (22.3%) UESE before the age of 16 years. Most participants reported that they were only exposed to the UESE once (55.6%). The UESE bothered female participants significantly more than males both at the time of the UESE and at the time of completing the questionnaire. Both male and female participants were more bothered by the UESE at the time of the event than they were at the time of completing the questionnaire, indicating an abatement of symptoms over time. At the time of the event 27.7% of the participants indicated that they were not at all bothered by the UESE. This percentage increased to 43.1% at the time of completing the questionnaire. At the time of the UESE 30.8% of the respondents indicated that they were extremely bothered by the UESE. This percentage had decreased to 16.9% at the time of completing the questionnaire. The results indicated that not all respondents were bothered by the UESE and that there was an abatement of symptoms over time.

Soccer is the most popular sport in the world. Performance at optimal levels requires high levels of technical, tactical and physiological skills. Identification and selection of talented soccer players are not straightforward procedures. Anthropometric, physiological and skill attributes may contribute to select talented players. The selection made at early ages may be relevant up until adulthood and many players may drop out of soccer only because of their date of birth. Team sport coaches thus have the dilemma of balancing the development of skill and physiological requirements of the players. Soccer requires superior levels of both aerobic and anaerobic fitness. Optimal aerobic fitness is a prerequisite for elite soccer players and has benefits such as increased work intensity during a game; prevention of a second-half reduction in performance; doubling the number of sprints completed; and allowing players to cover a greater distance. The players' aerobic capacity plays an important role in modern soccer and also has a major influence on their technical performance. Muscle strength, power and speed are important physiological characteristics in order to perform sprinting, jumping, tackling and kicking in soccer. Anaerobic activity may constitute the more crucial moments of the game and contribute directly to winning possession of the ball and to the scoring and conceding of goals. This review summarises and provides an update of data available on the physiology of male soccer players representing different countries worldwide. The information may have important implications for the success of soccer players and teams and could guide coaches in the selection process.

The main objective of this research was to determine the anthropometric, somatotype and performance characteristics of the Turkish National U-14 Female Volleyball Team that participated in the national team selection session. Fifty-eight (58) female volleyball players from various towns in Turkey camped to compete in the national team selection carried out at METU sports hall in 2007 participated in the study. Heath-Carter method was used to determine the somatotype characteristics. Correlate (bivariate) statistics was used to determine any relationships between the players' somatotypes and their performance measures. The mean age, height and weight values of the participants (n=58) were 14.38±0.98 years, 177.17±5.42 cm, 60.97±8.10 kg, respectively. The mean values of the performance evaluation tests including vertical jump, standing long jump, and 20-metre run were 41.14±4,76 cm, 191.24±16,33 cm, and 3.78±,18 sec, respectively. The mean somatotype values of the players were as follows: endomorphy 3.44±0.98, mesomorphy 2.13±1.00, ectomorphy: 4.46±1.09. The research was helpful in providing a guide regarding the selection of female volleyball players as well as designing training programmes and plans related to specific player positions.

Core stability and -training are receiving particular attention in the medical and sporting fields as well as in general health care industry. The COREPOWER machine has been designed specifically to target the 'core' musculature. This study was done to investigate the effects of a 36 (thirty six) session intervention programme on the COREPOWER (6 (six) minutes a day, 1 (one) minute break in between, 3 (three) days a week) on golfers' physical fitness and sport specific performance. Participants comprised 9 (nine) male golfers whose lower back flexibility (sit and reach), muscle strength and -endurance (sit-ups, push-ups, hand grip strength (dynamometer) and wall-squats), cardiorespiratory fitness (3 (three) minute step-test), balance (Biodex balancing system), club head speed and carry distance (Flightscope) were determined before and after 12 week intervention. Wilcoxon signed-rank test was computed to determine pre- vs. post-test differences with significance set at p < 0.05. Significant improvements were observed for flexibility (p = 0.016) only. No other dependent variable showed statistically significant improvement post intervention. Handicap (p = 0.050), sit ups (p = 0.060) and wall squats (p = 0.070) approached significance. Percentage improvements ranging from 11% - 53% were documented which could be important from a performance perspective. Thirty six sessions on the COREPOWER may impact positively on selected golfing related fitness and functional parameters; however, results clearly warrant further investigation using a larger sample size and control group.

Long distance running is a moderate to high-power activity supported by aerobic energy (Ward-Smith, 1999). Apart from the importance of aerobic conditioning, long distance running requires a great deal of mental toughness. The purpose of this study was to compare talented, with less talented distance runners, in order to identify the psychological characteristics exhibited by talented distance runners. A cross-sectional study design was used which consisted of 182 grade 8 pupils: 87 boys and 95 girls. Sport psychological skill levels were measured with the Athletic Copings Skills Inventory (ACSI-28). The Australian Talent Search Protocol was used to identify general sporting talent. The results of the beep test were used to identify the most talented potential distance runners. The top 30% (n=58) of the adolescents were assigned to group 1 (talented group) and the remaining adolescents to group 2 (n=107) (less talented). The results revealed that the talented group obtained significantly better results in 6 of the 8 variables which included adversity, pressure, goal-setting, concentration, coachability and the average coping ability (p<0.05). Moderate practical significance was found in 7 of the 8 variables which included adversity, pressure, goal-setting, concentration, confidence, coachability and coping ability, and a small practical significance was indicated for worry. It is therefore, important to consider psychological skill development in young long distance athletes to enhance their athletic performance.

International research provides contradicting results about the impact of recreation programmes on adolescent criminal behaviour. In addition, there is a dearth of South African data regarding the outcomes of recreation as therapeutic intervention with children in conflict with the law. This article investigates the prospects and challenges of the approach in local contexts. Bandura's self-efficacy theory (1977) is applied to explore the strengths of and potential hindrances to recreation intervention with adolescent offenders. Empirical data stem from in-depth interviews with a facilitator of an adventure-based programme, as well as with Criminology and Social Work lecturers who have experience with the approach. In dealing with the dysfunctional family life and depriving environments of participants, mechanisms of the strategy amount to physical and mental challenges in order to create mastery and positive self-expectations. The generality principle of effectance theory appears difficult to achieve due to the use of metaphors and the absence of appropriate post-adventure support to practice the lessons learned in the outdoors. An estimated half of participants do not access post-adventure support, which questions the sustainability of the good intentions brought about by recreation intervention. From a systems perspective, recreation programmes may fail to impact on the broader proximal dimensions in which adolescents function because meaningful others - in particular parents - are minimally involved in the intervention. Child offenders with well-established defence mechanisms and resistance to change appear less amenable to recreation intervention.

This article discusses the place of Health and Physical Education (PE) from the South African perspective in relation to the Global Forum on Physical Education Pedagogy 2010 (GOFPEP) Consensus Statement. The article highlights the absence of PE in South African school curricula and the consequences of the policy, such as the development of non-communicable diseases like overweight and obesity, particularly among children and adolescents. It also raises a serious concern on the development of other health problems like type II diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases and associated health problems. The article also contributes to the debate on the need for a paradigm shift in the focus of school curriculum. Attention is drawn to the focus of the GOFPEP 2010 Consensus Statement.