Acta Criminologica: Southern African Journal of Criminology - latest Issue

This Special Edition of the journal with the theme title: Corrections: Sites of harm reduction, rehabilitation and professionalism, covers a broad spectrum of research dealing with several different aspects of activities and operations in Correctional Centres in South Africa (with one exception a case study from Nigeria).

There is surprisingly very little contemporary debate about ‘methods’ of research within the prison context, with no sound rules or guiding principles about what it takes to work with incarcerated populations nor the risks, to both researchers and prisoners, within these settings. This article will draw on the findings, and subsequent theoretical analysis, of a project with women in prison in South Africa – The Pathways Project. This foundational work and ongoing interrogation of ‘theories of women and crime’, provide an account of the interminable tensions between researchers’ interests and the interests of imprisoned women. Both compounded and amplified by an institutional climate of regulation, order, disorder, crowded facilities and rules that are simultaneously rigid and shifting. It further reflects on the challenges of conducting empirical research in a prison context and the delicate balancing act of (re)articulating women’s life stories in a way that is sufficiently ‘scientific’ and also satisfies the implicit institutional requirement of ‘making a difference’. It is argued that research methods, the theoretical underpinnings of research and the (desired) outcomes of research are intrinsically linked. This confluence of factors has consequences for the methods we utilise, the questions we ask or evade, who and how we interview, how we analyse and understand our ‘data’, and what we eventually ‘decide’ to communicate.

The forms of punishment utilised by the criminal justice system are designed to control behaviours in a variety of ways. Imprisonment as one of the sanctions used by the courts has a noticeable impact on human life. Imprisonment is not only focused on removing the offender from society but also plays a role in rehabilitating the offender. The belief that offending behaviour can and should be changed has a huge impact on the day-to-day administration of the criminal justice system. It is generally accepted that reform or reformation or rehabilitation is one of the valid purposes of punishment. This contribution considers the arguments in favour of using reformation as sentencing object, and those that argue that it cannot be. For the purpose of this contribution a questionnaire was distributed to a total of 31 judicial officers in the jurisdiction of the Thohoyandou High Court, Thohoyandou Regional Office and the Sibasa Regional Court. As is often the case in human endeavours, the answer is rarely completely simple. Throughout the contribution the following distinction should be kept in mind: (1) reform as an object or purpose of sentencing; and (2) reform as a consideration in the execution of punishment. In the case of (1) the roleplayers are the courts and their task is to impose sentence. In the case of (2) the Department of Correctional Services (DCS) is the role player, and its task is to execute the sentence.

Although still limited, inroads are being made in developing a body of knowledge about incarcerated female offenders in South Africa. We present key findings from a survey among this offender population with reference to their demographic characteristics, family background and criminal histories, as well as their uptake of rehabilitation initiatives. Data was obtained from 120 female offenders incarcerated in a South African correctional facility (sample coverage 80.0%). In addition to descriptive results on the profile of female offenders, non-parametric procedures were used to identify meaningful differences (p<0.05) between the profiles of short-term and medium-term female offenders. The results revealed effect sizes of r>-0.20 between the two groups in respect of socio-demographic characteristics, previous arrests and prison sentences, self-harm, substance abuse, participation in rehabilitation programmes and expectancies of future criminality. The survey results call for specific reforms regarding current rehabilitation policy and practices, particularly with imprisoned short-term female offenders in mind as their profiles present unique vulnerabilities for future contact with the criminal justice system.

Criminological pre-sentence evaluation reports assist courts by providing a comprehensive picture of an offender as a human being; the factors that contributed to the crime; an explanation of the offending behaviour, and also by recommending individualised sentencing options. In corrections, criminologists compile expert needs and risk assessments to determine exclusive pointers for offender rehabilitation efforts. It is thus assumed that criminological pre-sentence evaluation reports, that are compiled before sentencing, should form, to some extent, the basis of the criminological after-sentencing (offender needs and risk) reports. If this is the case, offenderspecific and offence-specific factors, as outlined in the pre-sentence reports, can guide correctional criminologists with the identification of offenders’ unique needs and risks for rehabilitation submissions. This article draws attention to the plausible worth that criminological pre-sentence reports hold for corrections. The aim is to establish if pre-sentence evaluation reports hold any benefit or significance for the exposure of rehabilitation indicators in terms of offender needs and risks. Four pre-sentence evaluation reports (document analysis) of adult sex offenders, who committed the same type of offence, with the same category victim, were assessed to ascertain the implication of the content of the reports for rehabilitation purposes. The researchers followed a qualitative approach to analyse and assess the case studies presented in the reports. Rehabilitation indicators in the reports were deliberated on and evaluated against what is scientifically known to be applicable and effective for rehabilitation of this type of sex offender. The findings indicate a void in correctional treatment targets (causes, motives, contributory factors, influences, triggers, and high-risk situations) and a vacuum in an offender-specific and offence-specific analysis. Aforementioned focus areas will contribute towards correctional criminologists’ assessments in underlying rehabilitation directives for the adequate rehabilitation and treatment of offenders.

The unit management approach was adopted by various correctional systems around the world in order to improve the supervision and treatment of incarcerated offenders. In South This approach was implemented in South Africa during 1995 and it was viewed as a vehicle for service delivery, as well as a strategic move to ensure that corrections and the rehabilitation of inmates were achieved. In an attempt to assess the implementation of unit management in Youth Development Centres, a descriptive study was conducted to evaluate the relationship of the components of unit management. A purposive sample of 379 incarcerated male youth offenders was selected to participate in this study. The findings revealed that inmates’ perceptions regarding the function of each component of unit management is influenced by various factors such as the length of the sentence, biographical attributes and the youth development centre where the sentence is served.

The purpose of this article is to focus on victim empathy advancement components in correctional programmes offered in Youth Correctional Centres. It is postulated that youth sex offenders display empathy deficits, but only a limited number of international studies have investigated these deficits. This is problematic, as intervention programmes frequently include victim empathy advancement components without sufficient empirical support to necessitate such inclusion. In a recent study conducted by Coetzee (2015), an existing measuring instrument, namely Beckett and Fisher’s Victim Empathy Distortion Scale was used to measure and compare 96 youth sex offenders’ empathy levels for sexual abuse victims in general as portrayed in a case study, as well as empathy for the offenders’ own specific victims (thus measuring the difference in each offender’s empathy levels for sexual abuse victims in general, and for their own victim). The quantitative research results indicate that the most prominent empathy deficits are displayed towards the youth sex offenders’ own victims. This finding was supported by the responses gained from the interviews with participants during the qualitative phase of the study. The findings in the quantitative and qualitative section of the research elucidates the importance of focussing on own victim empathy in correctional programmes offered to these youths in order to assist them to understand the impact of their offending behaviour, to take responsibility for their offending behaviour, and to reduce the possibility that they will recidivate.

International research has demonstrated the impact of prison conditions on the levels of selfesteem of inmate populations. Despite the evaluative aspects of the self in relation to the correctional environment, a dearth of research remains notable within the South African context, notwithstanding the critical aspects thereof in relation to behavioural motivation and possible reduction of recidivism. Guided by a Rogerian theoretical framework, a quantitative analysis was conducted of the level of self-esteem of a group of recidivists. On the one hand results indicated that the self-esteem scores of a group of South African repeat offenders were negatively affected by vicarious experiences of victimisation within the correctional facility, and on the other, findings showed also increases in self-esteem in terms of prolonged exposure to the correctional environment together with positive perceptions of satisfaction with the conditions in the correctional centres. Contrary to popular belief, this shows that not all offenders in the correctional context necessarily experience low levels of self-esteem but these findings also highlight the importance of the impact of witnessing victimisation on the selfesteem within the correctional environment.

The Department of Justice and Correctional Services (DJCS) in South Africa has endorsed a community participation policy to achieve re-integration objectives, but the challenge remains on the implementation process in order to reduce recidivism. The higher the success rate of ex-offenders’ re-integration, the fewer recidivists will be re-admitted and, consequently, the correctional centre population will be reduced. This study seeks to contextualise the participation of Community Corrections Forum members in the re-integration of ex-offenders into the community in Vhembe District. Currently, there is a lack of community involvement into ex-offenders’ re-integration which makes it difficult for ex-offenders to settle back into their communities. The introduction of Community Corrections Forums (CCFs) is not effective and the policy is silent about their objectives during the re-integration process. The involvement of community members in re-integration of ex-offenders assist the DJCS to facilitate community with the goal of successful re-integration.

In western cultures, invested in a discourse of heteronormativity, biological fathers are the ‘breadwinners’ of families, and mothers, the ‘caregivers’. In societies with this dominant discourse, the traditional family structures discourage fathers from being involved parents. However, criminological and psychological fields acknowledge that incarcerating biological fathers distresses families, especially children. Research on incarcerated fathers consistently demonstrates the harmful effects of incarceration on children across many developmental outcomes. This paper explores the damage of paternal incarceration and its effect on adolescent children. Attachment Theory is the primary theoretical framework applied, with a qualitative research approach, and a purposive sampling method. Fourteen biological fathers, incarcerated for various offences, were interviewed in Cape Town, South Africa. In addition, five of the incarcerated fathers’ adolescent children participated in the study. In-depth interviews were conducted with the fathers and focus groups undertaken with the adolescents. The findings indicated intersections with adolescent deviant behaviours, parental incarceration, and the absence of paternal parenting roles/responsibilities. Additionally, the fathers struggled to maintain their role as ’fathers’, after incarceration, as they were excluded from family decision-making, and their children’s development. The adolescent children were also emotionally affected by the stigma of an imprisoned father. They experienced feelings of abandonment and yearned for the father-child relationship during adolescence. In addition, the incarcerated fathers faced challenges with the demands of survival in prison, and elected to adopt a ‘criminal mind-set’, to blend in. Penitentiary conditions, and ‘criminal’ activities, often superseded any family obligations, where support, contributions, or participation in decision-making was required. Ultimately, the importance of joint decision-making, caregiving and parenting, for the children’s optimum development, was revealed, with suggestions for interventions. Incarceration of biological fathers has specific consequences for the whole family, especially adolescent children. The social patterning of repression, negatively affects the incarcerated and their families, who are mere bystanders.

The study was conducted in Kano Central and Goron-Dutse prisons in North Western Nigeria. A total of 250 questionnaires were administered to convicted male inmates; 140 in Kano central prison and 110 in Goron-Dutse prisons. The number of respondents was higher in Kano Central prison than Goron-Dutse because of the disparity in inmate population. It was pertinent to conduct this study so as to determine the effectiveness of the prisons in the sample with regards to inmate rehabilitation. This was achieved as the study empirically examined the experiences of inmates in both prisons. Against this background therefore, this study involves an appraisal of rehabilitation programme from the inmates’ perspectives and some selected findings of this study, revealed that both prisons were unable to meet the United Nations Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Offenders (1984). For example, quantitative data revealed that only a 27 percent of inmates were involved in rehabilitation programmes with the balance (73%) were not involved at all in any rehabilitation programmes. The data also revealed that only 26.5 percent of inmates were satisfied with the existing rehabilitation programmes. This shows a variation in the level of inmates’ satisfaction with rehabilitation programmes and facilities. Interestingly, 7.3 percent of the inmates considered vocational programmes adequate. This suggests that the majority of inmates irrespective of the prisons perceived vocational training inadequate. This study recommends that it is imperative for the Nigerian government to make more efforts with the provision of adequate rehabilitation programmes and facilities in the two selected prisons as well as those across the country.

The third edition of A guide to sentencing in South Africa was published by LexisNexis in 2016. Legislative changes and new case law was incorporated into this edition up to 31 December 2015. The publication builds on the first and second editions that were published in 1999 and 2007 respectively. The author is Stephan Terblance, a Professor of Law from the Department of Criminal and Procedural Law at the University of South Africa and an Advocate of the High Court of South Africa.